EARLY STORAGE AND SEDENTISM ON THE PACIFIC NORTHWEST COAST: ANCIENT DNA ANALYSIS OF SALMON REMAINS FROM NAMU, BRITISH COLUMBIA Aubrey Cannonand Dongya Y. Yang Ancient DNA identificationof salmon remainsfrom the site ofNamu on the central coast of British Columbiashows use of a variety of species and an emphasis on pink salmon over the course of the past 7,000 years. These results support arguments that Namu was a permanent village settlement dependent on a salmon storage economy throughoutthis time. This pattern of subsistence and settlementpredates by several millennia thefirst substantial evidencefor population expansion or social differentiationin the region. Periodic salmon shortages in the period after 2000 cal B.C., which are associated with local and regional disruptionsin settlementand increased reliance on moremarginal resources,appear to be the result of failures in the pink salmonfishery. La identificaciondel ADN antiguo en remanentesde salmon obtenidos en el sitio Namu en la costa central de la Columbia Britdnica,constituyeevidencia de la utilizacionde una variedadde especies, con preferenciapor el salmon rosado, a traves de los ultimos7000 anos. Dichos resultadosvendriana apoyar la hipotesis de que Namu seria un asentamientopermanente, que dependeriaeconomicamentedel almacenamientode salmon.Este patron de subsistenciay de asentamientovendriaa ser mas temprano,por varios milenios,que la importanteprimeraevidenciade una expansionpoblacional o de una diferenciacion social en esta region.La escasez periodica del salmon en el periodo posterior al 2000 cal B.C., asociada con trastornosen los asentamientoslocales y regionalesy con un incrementode la dependenciasobre recursosmas marginales,vendriana ser productodelfracaso en la pesca del salmon rosado. debatewhen sedentarysettlement and a fully developed salmonArchaeologists storageeconomyfirstappearon thePacific NorthwestCoast(Ames2003:24).Theyalsodebate their relative importance in long-term cultural developmentsin the region (Matson 1992:422; Moss andErlandson1995:34).Resolutionof these debatesmayeventuallycome frommoreextensive site survey and excavation,but progress toward theirresolutioncan also come fromnew evidence derivedfrom existing site collections.We present a newlineof evidencebasedon ancientDNA analysis of salmon remains from the site of Namu, locatedin the traditionalterritoryof the Heiltsuk Nation on the centralcoast of British Columbia (Figure1). Theresultsgive newinsightintotheprecise species compositionof the fishery and lend weightto argumentsthatNamuwas fromas early as 5000 cal B.C.a permanentvillagesettlementsustainedby a salmon-storageeconomy. Althoughstorageand sedentismare no longer thoughtto be eithersufficientor strictlynecessary for the emergenceof "complex"hunter-gatherers (Moss and Erlandson1995:34),they are amonga constellationof conditionswidely linkedto population growth,surplusproduction,and the development of social inequality (Arnold 1996; Rowley-Conwy2001:44).PacificNorthwestCoast archaeologistsgenerallyrecognize the mass harvest andstorageof seasonallyavailableresources, particularlysalmon, as an essential basis for the ethnographicpatternof denseregionalpopulation, largepermanentsettlements,rich ceremonialtraditions,highly developedmaterialarts,and com- Aubrey Cannon Departmentof Anthropology,McMasterUniversity, 1280 Main StreetWest, Hamilton,Ontario, Canada,L8S 4L9 (cannona@mcmaster.ca) Dongya Y. Yang Departmentof Archaeology,Simon FraserUniversity,Burnaby,B.C., Canada,V5A 1S6 (donyang@sfu.ca) AmericanAntiquity,71(1), 2006, pp. 123-140 Copyright©2006 by the Society for AmericanArchaeology 123 1 24 AMERICAN ANTIQUITY [Vol. 71 , No. 1 , 2006] Figure 1. Location of Namu on the central coast of British Columbia. plex social ranking(Matson 1992). Since sedentary settlementand the productionand controlof subsistencesurplusare widely viewed as having enabledordirectlycausedtheemergenceof greater social and cultural complexity (Ames 1994; MaschnerandPatton1996:101;Matson1992:422), material evidence of these developments has assumed a prominent place in archaeological researchanddebate. Very early evidence of storageand sedentism couldunderminepositedrelationshipswithincreasing populationdensityand greatersocial inequality, but indirectarchaeologicalindicatorsalways retain enough ambiguity to sustain established views in theface of potentiallycontradictory observations.Storage,for example,is acknowledgedas havingbeenbasedon relativelysimpletechnology and thereforelikely to have been presentin some form from the earliest occupationof the region (Ames 1994:217;Ames andMaschner1999:127). The massharvestandstorageof salmonis considered a muchlaterdevelopmentinvolvingchanges in the organizationof productionandmoresedentarysettlement.Itis thoughtto be thebasisforpopulationincreaseand the emergenceof increasing social differentiation(Croes and Hackenberger 1988),thoughpopulationgrowthis alsoconsidered a likely reasonfor the developmentof a storagebased economy (Ames and Maschner1999:252253). The generallyweak andequivocalevidence used to supportargumentsfor and againststorage is the majorbasis for contention.Largequantities REPORTS of salmonremains,the relativerepresentationof cranialelements versus vertebrae,mass capture technology,and storage structureshave all been cited and debated as evidence for large-scale salmonstorage. Onerelativelysimpleindicatorof storageis the presenceof the remainsof one particularresource in such abundancethattheir accumulationas the resultof freshconsumptionwould seem unlikely. An abundanceof salmonrelativeto otherresources might suggest their consumptionas dried stores since salmonareavailablefor a limitedperiodconsistingof only weeks or months.Ames (1998:82) has suggestedthat such abundancecould also be explainedas the result of large-scalepopulation aggregationscoming togetherfor shortperiodsof timeto consumefishfreshratherthanas processed stores. Salmonremainsresultingfromprocessingand storagehave been differentiatedfrom those consumedfreshon thebasisof therelativeproportions of cranialelements and vertebrae(Calvert1970; Coupland 1998:43; Matson 1992). Controlled observationsof processingandstoragepracticesin morerecenthistoriccontextssupportthe proposition thatvillage sites subsistingon storesof dried salmoncan exhibit a preponderanceof vertebrae while campsusedforprocessingorwherethe consumptionof freshfishtookplaceyieldgreaternumbers of cranialelements(Hoffmanet al. 2000). A wide range of other taphonomicand processing variablescould also potentiallyproduce assemof crablagesvaryingin therelativerepresentation nial elements (Ames 1994:217; Cannon 2001; Coupland1998:51-52). Therearealsotoo few sites fromcontrolledtemporalcontextsthatexhibitclear forthisto be the patternsof elementrepresentation of largefor the criterion development deciding scale storageon the NorthwestCoast. Although widely cited, this variable alone is at best an ambiguousindicatorof storage. Additionalsupportfor intensivesalmonfishing and storagecomes from studiesof weirs and fish trapsbuiltto facilitatemassharvest.Again,thereasoning is that such facilities would yield harvests in excess of whatcouldbe consumedas freshfish, thereforeimplyingtheirpurposewas to enablethe harvestof sufficientfishforwinterstorage.Therelativelyrecentdate of most fish weirs (Moss et al. 1990;Moss and Erlandson1998) has led some to 125 infer that intensivefishing for storagewas also a relatively recent development(Ames 1994:217; Matson1992:386,2003:7).Earlyexamplesoffish weirs also indicatelong-termuse of this technology (EldridgeandAcheson 1992), but early populationsprobablymadeuse of a varietyof harvest techniques. Although common construction of weirs and fish trapsmay be a later development indicatingintensificationof fishing on local and regional scales, these constructions were not requiredfor local populationsto base theirwinter subsistenceon storedsalmon. The absenceof storagefeaturesin earlyarchaeological contextshas also been cited as evidence against an early dependence on salmon storage (AmesandMaschner1999:138).Theethnographic culturesof theNorthwestCoastdependedon boxes, baskets,andthecornersandraftersof plankhouses as storagefacilities(Suttles 1968:63-64). Baskets andboxesareunlikelyto be preservedin mostearly contexts,andthey leave little otherarchaeological trace.The NorthwestCoastcedarplankhouse has been describedas a large storagefacility (Ames 1996).Theidentificationof large-scalestoragehas thereforefocused on evidence for the advent of permanent residential structures (Ames 1994: 217-219). Unfortunately, earlyevidenceforhouses is very difficult to discern in the limited area expanse of most excavationsinto deep and complexly stratifiedshell middendeposits.Evenwhen positedon the basis of floor and supportpost featuresuncoveredthroughexcavationsof greaterarea extent(e.g.,Hamet al. 1986), earlyevidenceof permanenthousing has been consideredunconvincing (Ames and Maschner 1999:262; Matson 1992:382). The more unequivocalevidence for large,rectangularresidentialhousing,of the form thatwould allow for large-scalestorage,generally comes in the formof surfacefeaturesconsistingof structuraloutlines.The focus on surfacefeatures tendsto supporta laterdateforthe developmentof permanenthousing. Argumentsagainstan earlystorage-basedsubsistence economy presuppose an earlier, more mobilepatternof shiftingresidenceto takeadvantage of seasonally availableresources.The difficultyin applyingthismodelto theNorthwestCoast is thatrelativelyfew substantialresourcesareavailable in the wintermonthsin this temperateregion. It is possible to fish for some minorspecies, such 1 26 AMERICAN ANTIQUITY as rockfish,year round. Shellfish are also available, thoughthereis no early evidence to suggest they were sufficientbasis for winter subsistence. Some game,suchas deerandsea mammals,is also available,but a subsistence economy reliant on thesetypes of typicallysingularandintermittently availableresourceswouldlikelybe precarious.The absenceof large-scale,easily harvested,and reliablefood resourcesthroughoutthe wintercouldin itself arguefor an emphasison the mass harvest and storage of salmon, but the absence of early positiveevidencefor whatis presumedto be such a pivotaldevelopmenthas been enoughto undermine any argument based solely on seasonal resourceavailability. The lack of substantialevidence from early archaeologicalcontexts and the equivocalnature of all materialindicatorsof storagefromwhatever contexthave left the timingof large-scalesalmon storageopen to questionand debate.The consensushasbeenthatintensivefishingandstoragewere relativelylatedevelopments.Oneresearcher(Matson 1992:423)has gone so faras to say "weappear to be on the verge of being able to say with certainty that the Northwest Coast salmon-storage economy came into being duringthe 3500-3000 B.P.period." Theissueof whenpermanentsedentaryorsemisedentarywintervillage settlementemergedon the coast has been even moredifficultto resolve.Part of the problemis a matterof definition,buteven if permanentwinter village settlementof the type describedethnographically,which also incorporatesa substantialdegreeof seasonalmobilityon the partof individualsand groups,is takenas the standard,unequivocalarchaeologicalevidencefor its developmentcanbe difficultto discern.Demonstrationof permanentmultiseasonalor wintervillage settlement has typically depended on the evidenceof substantialresidentialstructuresorseasonallyspecificfaunalindicators.Theproblemwith discerningearlyevidenceof substantialstructures has alreadybeen described.The sameissues noted for storagealso applyto thequestionof village settlement.Givenrelianceon surfacefeaturesto define substantialstructures,the adventof village settlementon the coasttendsto be placedrelativelylate (Ames 1994:218-219; Matson and Coupland 1995:187). The problemswith making seasonal determi- [Vol. 71 , No. 1 , 2006] nationson the basis of faunalindicatorshavebeen widelydiscussed(Monks1981:180-185). Theseasonalavailabilityof mostfaunalspeciescoversuch wide and often overlappingrangesthatthey provide littlepreciseindicationof whenpeopleinhabitedanygivensite.Seasonallyavailablefaunashow minimallywhenpeoplewerepresent,buttheycannotdemonstratecontinuouspresenceoveranyspecific lengthof time. Growthincrementanalysisof shell has also provedunreliable(Maxwell 2003). Theadventof permanentvillagesettlementis therefore tied to the unequivocalevidenceof largesubwhichareonlyclearly stantialresidentialstructures, evidentin theterminaloccupationsof village sites. These aregenerallyrecentat most locations. Cannon( 199 1, 1998)haslongarguedonthebasis of faunalremainsthat Namu was occupied year roundby someportionof itsresidentpopulationand wasdependenton a storage-based economyfocused on the massharvestof salmon.He has also argued thatthatpatternremainedfundamentally unchanged fromthedateof theearliestpreservedfaunalremains ca. 5000 cal B.C. The argumentis basedforemost on the large quantitiesof salmon among the fish remainsotherthanherring.Salmonmakeup89 percent of all identifiedfish otherthanherringin the earliestperiodfor which faunalremainsare available (Cannon1991:18).Based on the analysisof augersamples,herringwas even moreabundantin this and all subsequentperiods (Cannon2000a). Althougha varietyof fish, shellfish,mammal,and birdspecies were harvested,it is clearthatsalmon and herringwere the main foci of the subsistence economy throughoutthe last 7,000 years. Some archaeologistsaccept that the large quantityof salmonat the site is evidenceof storage(Coupland 1998:44).Others,while not dismissingthe possibility,havesuggestedalternative explanations,such as large seasonal fishing aggregations (Ames 1998:88).Thesomewhatweakerargumentbasedon cranialelementversusvertebrarepresentation has notbeenaddressedexplicitly,buttheNamusalmon consistoverwhelminglyof vertebraein all periods (Cannon1991:18). The argumentfor a permanentmultiseasonal occupationof the Namu site is based on the consistent presence of seasonally specific resources, includingneonatalharborseal remains,indicative of presenceataroundthemid-Junepeakin thepupping season;salmon,which are availablein sum- REPORTS mer/earlyautumn;andherring,whichareavailable in late winter/earlyspringwhen they come near shoreto spawn.Similarfaunalevidenceis citedby Ames and Maschner(1999:139) as indicativeof year-roundoccupationof the Boardwalksite in PrinceRupertharborby 2100 B.C., but they note on the samepage:"Thereis also no directevidence of storageat Namu, except for the large numbers of salmon.It seems perfectlyfeasible thatmobile huntersandgathererswould gatherat Namufor a fall fish run,perhapseven erectingstructures,dispersingto otheravailablefood sources,andreturning in the spring." Multiseasonalfauna, specifically salmon and herring,have been cited at otherlocationson the coast as indicativeof seasonalmobilitytypicalof Binford'sforagermode (Coupland1998:41),but thereare no obvious resourcesavailablebetween the times of the salmonand herringfisheriesthat would warrantmovement away from the Namu site.Thethreeclearseasonalindicatorsimplysome residenceat the site throughoutmuch of the year. If wintersubsistencewasalso supportedby reliance on storesof driedor smokedsalmon,then clearly Namuwas a majorwintervillage, typicalof those fromthedateof theeardescribedethnographically, liest faunalremainsca. 5000 cal B.C. It is nonethelesspossible to arguereasonably, as Ames has done, that the early abundanceof salmon could be the productof limited seasonal aggregationfor a particularfishery.The site might then be abandoneduntil reoccupiedby a similar aggregationfor the herringfishery.A large numberof peoplefroma wide areacongregatingat one locationfor a limitedtime certainlycouldproduce andimmediatelyconsumea largenumberof fish. Althoughit is not clear why Namu would be the focus for sucha congregation,thereasonscouldbe the same as those thatmightbe offeredto explain use of the site as a village location. Based on the presenceand abundanceof morphologically identifiedfauna, there is not much likelihoodof resolvingthe debate,especially not in the face of persistentviews thatsedentism,storage,populationgrowth,andculturalcomplexityare mutuallylinkedand relativelylate developments. In the absenceof unambiguousevidenceof structuralremains,it is unlikelythatanyamountof excavation would resolve this issue. Fortunatelythe developmentandrefinementof new ancientDNA 127 (aDNA) analyticaltechniqueshas provedcapable of providinga new level of precisionin the faunal datathatgoes somewaytowardbolsteringtheargumentforearlysedentismandstorage.Italsorefines ourknowledgeand understandingof laterdisruptionin the fishery,aneventthatCannon(2002) has cited as a potentiallycriticaljuncturein the settlementhistoryof the site andthe surrounding region. Ancient DNA Analysis of the Namu Salmon The resultsof extensiveaDNA analysisof salmon remainsshow a clear patternand long-termconsistency in the natureof the fishery.The identification of species from individual vertebrae followedtechniquesdevelopedandrefinedbyYang et al. (2004). The analysisbeganat the McMaster UniversityPalaeogeneticsInstitutewith the initial experimentaldevelopmentof theprotocolsforconsistentaDNAextractionandspeciesidentification, butwas carriedoutlargelyattheSimonFraserUniversity Ancient DNA Laboratory.The project developed over several years between 2000 and 2004. Samplingproceededin stages, initially to select a few vertebraefor testing, followed by expansionof the sampleto encompassa rangeof time periods and vertebrasizes, and then more extensive sampling to produce comparable-size samples from the major time periods identified withinthe last 7,000 yearsof the site's occupation. Sampling,whichis discussedin moredetailbelow, involveda combinationof randomandsize dependentselectionfromcontextschosento coverevenly the broadestavailabletemporalspan.The results presentedhere are based on successfulextraction andspeciesidentificationof aDNAsequencesfrom 116 individualvertebraeselectedby Cannonfrom 28 excavationcontexts across seven horizontally definedexcavationunits and two augersampling locations. Results The resultspresentedin Table 1 are summarized by majortimeperiodsdefinedon thebasisof stratigraphicdivisions, artifactcontent, and extensive radiocarbondating(Carlson1991, 1996). Overall, thereis a clearemphasison pinksalmon,followed by sockeyeandchum.Cohois alsoconsistentlypresentin smallernumbers,andone vertebradeliberately selectedfor analysisbecauseof its unusually [Vol. 71 , No. 1 , 2006] AMERICAN ANTIQUITY 1 28 Table 1. Numberand Percentageof aDNA IdentifiedSalmon Species by Time Period. Pink Period P6 (AD 1 - Contact) P5 (2000 BC- ADI) P4 (3000 - 2000 BC) P3 (4000 - 3000 BC) P2 (5000 - 4000 BC) Site Total n 11 5 9 13 11 49 % 42.3 16.1 45.0 76.5 50.0 42.2 Chum ri % 5 11 6 2 5 29 19.2 35.5 30.0 11.8 22.7 25.0 Sockeye n % 7 15 4 2 4 32 largesize was identifiedas chinook.Therefore,all five majoranadromousspecies of Pacific salmon arepresentatthesite,thoughtheemphasisis clearly on pink, which makeup 42.2 percentof the identified salmon. The morphologyof salmonvertebraedoes not allow their identification to species. An earlier attemptto inferthelikelycompositionof theNamu salmonfisherybased on radiographicanalysisof incrementalgrowth lines in vertebrae(Cannon 1988, 1998) had suggestedan emphasison chum, but had erroneouslyexcluded sockeye from considerationbasedon the publishedobservationthat majorrunsof sockeye are restrictedto largeriver systemssuchas the FraserandSkeena.In fact,the NamuRiverhas alwayssupportedrunsof sockeye salmon,as do manyof the othersmallriversin the area.Failureto recognizetheimportanceof thepink salmonfisherywas dueto the largenumberof vertebraeexhibitingwhat appearedto be two winter growthlines.Pinksalmonalmostinvariablyspawn in their second year.A comparativespecimenof pinksalmonandmanyof the archaeologicalspecimens identifiedthroughaDNA as pink salmon show two growthincrements.If these represented wintergrowth,as inferredin theradiographic analyfish.Studies sis, theywouldindicatethree-year-old have shown, however,that scales of pink salmon often exhibita supplementarycheck line thatcan be confused with a winter annulus (Bilton and Ricker1965).Sincethe aDNAresultsareunequivocal in theiridentificationof pinksalmon,we must concludethata proportionof thesefishexhibittwo visible incrementsin theirverteradiographically brae.This observationmakesthe alreadyambiguous resultsof the radiographicanalysiseven less usefulfor the purposeof species identification. Species identificationsare supportedby consistent results obtained from multiple DNA sequences.The majority(87.1 percent)of the 116 26.9 48.4 20.0 11.8 18.2 27.6 n 2 0 1 0 2 5 Coho % 7.7 0.0 5.0 0.0 9.1 4.3 Chinook % n 1 3.8 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 1 0.9 Totals n 26 31 20 17 22 116 % 100 100 100 100 100 100 positively identifiedsamples was identifiedconsistentlyfromat least two differentmitochondrial fragments,fromthe cytochromeb gene andthe Dloop regionrespectively(Yanget al. 2004). Fifteen vertebraewere successfully identifiedfrom only one DNA fragment,which could be attributedto poorDNA preservation,since in most cases these resultswere from a shorterfragment(Yanget al. 2004). The overall high DNA extractionsuccess rateof 95.1 percentfor all the samplesexamined (122 in total) confirmsthatthe PacificNorthwest region of NorthAmericaprovidesvery favorable conditionsfor DNA preservationin ancientfaunal remains(see also Spelleret al. 2005). Contaminationbetween samples and between ancientand modernDNA was preventedthrough use of the strictestpossiblecontaminationprevention protocols(Yanget al. 2004). Followingpublication of the initial results of DNA extraction fromarchaeologicalsamplesof salmonbone(Yang et al. 2004), theefficiencyof aDNAextractionwas optimizedto sucha degreethatanadequateamount of DNA could be obtainedfromjust one half of a singlevertebra.Thisenabledrepetitionof theanalysis, and a furthercheck on the accuracy of the results.We appliedthis test to approximately10 percentof the positively identifiedsamples, and identicalDNA sequenceswere reproducedin all cases.Analysisalso followeda blindtest systemin whichthe DNA analyst(Yang)was unawareof the provenanceof the samplesas they were submitted for analysis. This prevented any possibility of unconsciousbias based on expectationsof particularpatternsin the results. The remainingissue is whether the samples selectedfor analysisarerepresentativeof the fishery as represented by the overall assemblage. Although116samplesis verylargeby thestandards of most aDNA studies,it is still a very smallnumber relativeto the morethan200,000 salmonver- REPORTS 129 Figure 2. Namu site and the location of excavation units that yielded salmon vertebrae identified through aDNA analysis (see Table 2). tebraerecoveredin the last threeseasonsof excavationat the site. The possibilitythatvertebraein some cases representmultipleelementsfrom the same fish must also be addressed.For these reasons we provideextensivediscussionof sampling proceduresto supportourcontentionthattheresults presentedin Table1 accuratelyrepresentthenature of the salmonfisheryoverthe courseof sevenmillennia. Sampling A mapof the Namusite (Figure2) showsthe loca- tion of units excavatedover the courseof six seasons, firstin 1968-1970 by the Universityof Colorado, under the direction of James J. Hester (HesterandNelson 1978),andthenin 1977-1978, andin 1994by SimonFraserUniversity,underthe directionofRoy L.Carlson(1979, 1991,1996).The mapalso showsthe locationof augersamplescollected by Cannonin 1994 (Cannon2000a). Samples selected for aDNA analysis were obtained fromone of the unitsexcavatedin the Rivermouth Trenchin 1994, fourunits from the CentralMain Trenchexcavatedin 1977, a unitfromeach of the 1 30 AMERICAN ANTIQUITY Frontand RearTrenchesexcavatedin 1970, and two of the augersamplinglocationsin the vicinity of the FrontTrench.Thisrangeof excavationunits allowedus to obtaincomparable-sizesamplesfrom securelydatedcontextsrepresentingthe full span of the last 7,000 years. Table2 liststhespecificsampledcontexts,along with associatedradiocarbondates, the numberof recoveredvertebraefrom which the sample was drawn,themodeof sampleselection,andtheresults of aDNA analysis.Giventhe largenumberof vertebraerecoveredfrommost contextsandthe wide rangeof contextsfromwhichsamplesweredrawn, we do not expect that the possibility of drawing multiple samples from the same individualfish would have had a markedbiasing effect on our results.The mode of sampleselection,involvinga combinationof deliberateselection for particular size orsizerangeandrandomsamplingdoespotentially influence our results and for that reason requiresfurtherdiscussion. Oursamplingstrategydevelopedovertheyears as the projectand its goals developed.Ourinitial concern was to determine whether aDNA sequencesof sufficientlengthfor species identificationwere preservedwithinarchaeologicalsamples of vertebrae. Accordingly, we selected a sampleof thelargerandmostrecentvertebraethen available at McMaster University. These were among fauna from the upper levels of the units excavatedby SimonFraserUniversityin 1994.We presumedthat the best chance for aDNA preservationwas in morerecentsamplesandfurtherreasonedthatextractionof sufficientaDNAwas more likely with largervertebrae.Based on our initial successwe expandedoursamplingto includeolder specimensanda widerrangeof sizes.At this stage we beganto drawsamplesfroma randomsplit of thevertebraerecoveredfromeachcontext.Thevertebraassemblagesweredividedwith a soil sample splitterto yield a numberclose orequalto the sample size we were lookingto examine.We chose to lookata rangeof vertebrasizeswithinthesplitsamples in orderto maximize the potentialrange of speciesrepresented.Ourgoal was to determinethe species range of the fishery.With our success in identifyinga varietyof species fromdepositscontainingtheearliestpreservedfaunalremainswe set aboutto obtainmorerepresentativesamplesfrom thewidestrangeof temporalcontexts.Theexpense [Vol. 71 , No. 1 , 2006] of aDNA analysis precludedour examinationof samplesof sufficientsize to be statisticallyrepresentative.Instead,we optedfor randomlyselected samplesof small size froma greaterrangeof spatial andtemporalcontexts. In the end, oursamplesarepotentiallyunrepresentative due to the small numberof vertebrae selected from any given context and because in some cases we deliberatelyselected samplesrepresentingthe widest range of vertebrasizes. The nonrandomselectionof some samplesmay not be a significantbiasingfactor.The figuresin Table3 show thatthe overallresultsfor the randomlyand nonrandomlyselected samples are similar.The decision to select for a range of vertebrasizes in some cases did resultin an exaggeratedrepresentationof the largestandsmallestvertebrae,but,as discussedbelow, this likely did not greatlyskew the species representation. We believe the consistency of species representation between individual contexts is the strongestindicatorthat our results are generally representative.Even samplesconsistingof as few as fourvertebraeconsistentlyshowanemphasison pink salmon. There are no grossly anomalous resultsforanycontext.Ourobservationof ananomalous lack of pink salmon in deposits dating to Period5 (2000 cal B.C.-cal A.D. 1) was also consistentfor multiplecontextsdatingto thatperiod andto the earlypartof Period6 (cal A.D. 1-EuropeanContact).Initiallywe thoughtthisresultmight be due to our early emphasison largervertebrae fromthe firstcontextwe sampled(Unit66-68S, 46W; 70-80 cm DBS), which dated to this time period.To compensateand to determinewhether the low numberof pinksalmonwas simplya sampling effect, we resampledfromthe same context with a deliberateemphasis on smallervertebrae withinthe split sample.The resultsyielded a disnumberof sockeye,alongwitha few proportionate verifiedthatthe low numberof pink but they pink, salmon was not a function of initially selecting largervertebraefromthis particularcontext. The range of directlyor indirectlyassociated radiocarbon datesshowsthattheidentifiedsamples cover a wide rangeof securelydatedcontexts.We thinkthis lends furthercredenceto ourinterpretation thatthe resultsarerepresentativeof the span of the last 7,000 yearsof site occupation.The consistency of our results across this range of dated 131 REPORTS :§ OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO(NO-hOc0OOOO £ £ Co •g § J ooooooooo^ooooooooooooooooooooooo-h r_r On (J ^ o O OOOOO^HOOr-HOOOOOOOOOO-HOOOOOOOOO-HO-HO»O § 1u £ rS o 8 ^OO^^^^^O-H(N'-H<N<N(N(r)r-H(N--tO(N'-H-HOO--iOO'-H'-H^O^^ CO ao g 'a S j2 OOOOOO^-H(N'-H'-'Cn(N(NOOr-H(N'-H'-HCN<N^OO-HO<NOOr-Hr-HT-Hg^ .5 O^(SOOM(S(S^'HrHOOO'HfS^O(N(N(Nc^^'N|-(Sm(N(N'HCSCSM(N^ & II 8 g - | >. I <D <D w)W)c!bJ0 1> &o <D OX) euoa GJQ<D 2S 1 2 2 B|-8 S 2 ?1 1-s 1 2 23111? | -SS a"38!1!! -s oo Sg^'»'«o»'»o'S I"S| 13 +2 H f 2 l^^^^i^l g S22S3222'3 & miiinniiniiimnmiii \ I I O c S g s 'SB 5® <N(^^oi>oor-o>aN^c^^ooa\cn^toor-(N^D(NT-(TtTt^-r^r-'-H'-H ioio>oioT)(Sro^^iTiM3om tj- r- en t-h '- • CD ^ II 3 I osss sis 6666 |. ^ oo I 3 oo s °^ cn ^(NngU^ -SOOOO O'OOOO O O cncNr~HooO OOOOO ^ 00 00 00 00 O+l +IOOO 00 c^ f'"*^^*^ qq ^^ O ^\ O o\ lOOpOxfioQ r*^ ri ^w ""^iJ ooooooooor-oooooo g ^-^ | o SSl|ls mg3nOh .2 v^g ^ t 'T^?^ M m w m »-, g o -g 3^s<2 cs (N m m |g s^ §300000000 vo ^t n <N (N ^^s I ^ OOOOOOO^'-^^(N(NCN^HCNCN|-L(N'- r-r- c^ OO n 'O OO t-h ?-^ ci <4-t ^ ^-• !h• 5\ 51• II R yuyu^ "^ ^ "^ ^ o imcncnm cn 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 c^wnvq004 cn4 4 4 4 (>j yq ON ^ ^ ^ w* yj yj ^ w" w" w* w* 00 oq oo oo GO CO CO CO"CO"Co"CO CO CO Si !S «5 «5 feOOOO.MOOWMOOOOOOOOWOOOOOOM^TJ-^^OO^OOOOOOOO S & 8) 8) 8) 8) 8)^ ^^^0>^^^VOvo^^^^O^^VD^cncnrn<^VO<^v>o^Ovo^D W Q ^^^^^UhIXiPhPhI^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^*^^^^^^^ i, B xi «3^3 m m m ^ ^ « -S -8 -S -S- § -g .&T3 X> O "S -T o O ^ ^r h^5S!^S -T oS^OvO ^^ o4 ccoooo 53 o3 CS (N CN rt CN cS -Sj 1 32 [Vol. 71 , No. 1 , 2006] AMERICAN ANTIQUITY Table3. Comparisonof Salmon Species IdentificationsBased on Randomlyand Non-RandomlySelected Vertebrae. Pink non Period ran P6 (AD 1 - Contact) 74325 P5(2000BC-AD 1) 23292 P4 (3000 - 2000 BC) 54423 P3 (4000 - 3000 BC) 76021 P2 (5000 - 4000 BC) 65322 22 Site total 27 36.1 49.1 Percentage Chum ran non 12 21.8 17 27.9 Sockeye non 22 13 10 10 21 13 19 31.1 23.6 ran Coho non ran 0 0 0 1 0 1 2 3 3.3 5.5 Chinook non ran 01 00 00 00 00 1 0 1.6 0.0 Following Cannon's earlier studies (1988, 1991), which showed wide variationin the sizes of vertebraeand some correlationto differences in inferredage classes and potentialspecies represented,we recordedthe transversediameterof vertebraebefore their destructionfor analysis. The results for the aDNA identifiedsamples are shown in Figure 3a. Figure 3b shows the results of similar measurementsof statistically representativesamplesof vertebraefromall excavation contextsin the 3.5 m depthof depositsin unit 6870S, 4-6W of the Rivermouthtrench,which was excavated in 1978 (Cannon 1991). Comparison showsthe aDNA samplesareveryclose to the size range and profile of the much larger combined numberfrom statisticallyrepresentativesamples, with the exception, as noted, of some exaggeration in the numberof very large and very small vertebrae. The exaggeratedemphasison large and small vertebraeprobablydoes notgreatlybiasthespecies in ourresults.Withthe exceptionof representation the one chinook vertebra,which measured 18.0 mm in diameter,all the aDNA identifiedvertebrae measuring10.5 mm in diameteror greaterwere identifiedas chum.All thevertebraemeasuring8.0 mm in diameteror less were eitherpink or sockeye. The full rangeof species otherthanchinook was representedbetween8.0 and 10.5 mm.Among MetricAnalysis the representativesample of vertebrameasureOne furthercheck on the representativeness of the ments,854 or45.5 percentwere <8.0 mm and280 samplecomesfromthemetricdata,specificallythe or 14.9 percentwere > 10.5 mm.Amongthe meawidth of vertebrae,which was obtainedfor most suredaDNA analyzedsamples,51 or 47.7 percent samples prior to analysis. These results show a were < 8.0 mmand 17 or 15.9percentwere > 10.5 slightbiastowardlargerandsmallervertebrae,but mm.Ouridentificationsmaythereforeshowa very supportthe patternof species representationindi- slight exaggerationin the numberof chum,pink, cated by the identifications.They also point to and sockeye, but given the closeness of the size anotherpossible way to infer species from larger rangeof the aDNA sampleto thatof the represensampleswithoutthe need for an impracticalscale tativesample,we thinkanybiasis likely to be very of aDNA analysis. slight andprobablyoffset to a greatdegreeby the contextssuggeststheyarenottheproductof a small number of unrepresentativedeposition events. Althoughwe acknowledgethatoursamplingstrategy is far from ideal, we feel we have followed everyavailablemeansfor ensuringthe samplesare unbiasedwithoutincurringtheimpracticalexpense of time and money neededto analyzetrulyrepresentativesamples of vertebraefrom all available contexts. We must also acknowledgethat archaeologically recoveredvertebraemay be biasedfrom the outset as the resultof differentialprocessingand depositionof species. Unfortunatelylittle can be doneto controlforsuchunknownfactors.Thepresence of remainsfromall availablespecies suggests thatprocessingand depositionfactorswere probably not a significantsourceof bias. One possibility thatmight contributeto biased representation, especially the emphasis on pink salmon, is that recoveredvertebraerepresentdiscardedstoresthat hadeitherspoiledorwerein excess of winterneeds andthereforethrownout when freshfood became availablein the spring.This possibilitycannotbe assessedbasedon theavailableevidence,andmight notbe evidentin anycase,butit wouldprovidefurther supportfor the contentionthat the emphasis on pinksalmonis dueto harvestandprocessingfor storageratherthanfor immediateconsumption. REPORTS 133 Figure 3. Transverse diameters of salmon vertebrae for: (a) aDNA identified samples, and (b) the combined statistically representativesamples drawn from each vertical excavation context in Unit 68-70S, 4-6W. fact that there is a bias toward both larger and smallerspecimens. Implications If, as we contend,the aDNA resultsare an accurate representationof the range and relativeproportionsof species comprisingthe Namu salmon fishery,thentheyminimallyindicatea multispecies fisherywith an overwhelmingemphasison pink salmon,a strongbut lesser emphasison sockeye and chum, much less focus on coho, andjust the presenceof chinook.Theyalso showthatthesepatternsare consistentover time, with the exception of an anomalousdecline in the representationof pink salmon,beginningsometime after 2000 cal B.C. andpossiblyendingby aboutcal A.D. 1000. We thinkthe implicationsof these resultsarealso more far-reachingwith respectto resourceselectioncriteria,the likelihoodof sedentarysettlement and storagethroughoutthe past 7,000 years, and the cause of disruptionin the fisheryandlocal and regionalsettlementafterca. 2000 cal B.C. ResourceSelection Wewereinitiallysomewhatsurprisedby the strong emphasison pink salmon.In partthis was due to falseexpectationscreatedby theproblematicinterpretationof radiographicanalyses. We had also expected greaterselection of species possessing whatmightreasonablybe consideredsuperiorqualities. We expectedan emphasison chum because of theirlargerbody size andlow fatcontent,which makesthem superiorcandidatesfor preservation, and on sockeye and coho because of theirhigher fat content,which makes them a richersourceof food forfreshconsumption.Pinksalmonhavevery low fat content,which makesthemwell suitedfor preservation,but they are generallysmallerthan otherspecies. Romanoff (1985) provides an overview of Pacific Northwestethnographicinformationthat describesthe selectionof low-fatsalmonfor their superiorpreservationqualities.Fishwithhigherfat content were more likely to become rancid or moldyif preserved.If the aim of the Namufishery was primarilyto acquirefishforpreservation,then the focus on leanerpink and chum salmonwould make most sense. The greateremphasison pink ratherthan chum, which is most often described as thespeciesof choiceforpreserethnographically vation,andwhichmightbe expectedto be theoptimal choice on the basis of size, is less easy to explain.It is possible thatthe relativeproportions of these species was morea functionof theiravailability,or it could be thatthe smallerpink salmon requiredless processingfor storagethanthe larger chum. A fisheryfocusedprimarilyon harvestforfresh consumptionmighthave selectedsockeyeor coho over pink and chum, since relativefat contentis such an importantindicatorof food preference worldwide (Speth among hunter-fisher-gatherers andSpielmann1983).Thepresenceof pink,chum, andsockeyein suchlargerelativeproportionssuggests eitherthatfreshconsumptionandprocessing forlong-termstoragewerebothimportantelements of the fisheryor thatthe fisherywas more oppor- 1 34 AMERICAN ANTIQUITY [Vol. 71 , No. 1 , 2006] is difficult to define with any precision since dependingon the fishing methodsused different species mightbe availablefor harvestover a long periodof time.Most speciesspendtimein thebays andestuariesadjacentto spawningstreamsbefore they actuallyascendthe streamto spawn.A fisheryfocusedon thefishgatheredin theestuarycould have access to a rangeof species, eitherduringa relativelyshortperiodin latesummerorovermuch of the summerand early autumn.A focus on the harvestof fish as they ascendedthe riverto spawn wouldbe restrictedto muchnarrowertimeframes. Thesetimeswouldbe specificfor eachspeciesand would extend from late summer well into the autumn. Sockeye generallyarriveearliestin the areaof the centralcoast, schoolingin the bays andestuaries of coastalstreamsbeginningin June.Theytypically ascendriversto spawnin tributarysystems draininginto freshwaterlakesby late Julyor early August (Pomeroy 1980:207).Pink and chum are the next to arrivein the region.The peakarrivalof pinkis aroundlateJulyandearlyAugust(Aroand Shepard1967:282);chum arriveslightly later in August (Salo 1991:237).Both species can spend considerabletimein baysandestuaryenvironments priorto spawning(Hunter1959:844). Most also spawn in the lower intertidalreaches of coastal streams.Pinktypicallyspawnin Augustand September,while chum spawningtakesplace mainly in September(Aro and Shepard1967:259, 282). Coho arethe latestspecies to spawnon the central coast,withpeakspawningtakingplacein October (AroandShepard1967:289).A widerangeof environmentalvariablescan affect the specifictiming of spawningruns(Heard1991:136).Based on the time of arrivalin bays andestuariesandthe ascent of spawningstreams,it is conceivablethatall four species could be availablein the vicinity of the Namu site within a relativelynarrowtime period in earlyAugust.Based on the times of peak availability and the enhanced opportunityto harvest species as they ascendedor gatheredto ascendthe NamuRiver,a fisheryfocusedon pink,chum,and sockeyeis morelikely to haveextendedfromJuly throughSeptember. If fishingwas focusedon the harvestof species fromtheestuaryenvironment,it mightwell be posSedentismand Storage siblethatthefisherywastheproductof a short-term The seasonaltiming of the Namu salmonfishery aggregation.If the purposeof such an aggregation tunistic,with nutritionand preservationqualities playinglittle if any role in species selection. If the decidingcriterionfor resourceselection was not a combinationof the richnessand size of the individualspecies, but insteadwas theirrelative abundance,thenthe emphasison pink salmon is muchmoreeasily explained.By currentcounts pink salmon are overwhelminglymore abundant thanotherspeciesin the centralcoastregion(FisheriesandOceansCanada2001). Chumis currently the second-most common species in the small streamsandriversof the centralcoast,followedby sockeye andcoho in roughlyequalnumbers.Chinook do not generallyspawnin the small streams in the region.Escapementrecordsshow considerable variabilityin the numbersof differentspecies between streams and over time, but based on regionalaveragesthe apparentemphasison pink salmon might be expected on the basis of their greateravailability. An opportunisticfishingstrategywouldrequire thatpeopleharvestwhateverfish were availablein numbersproportional to theiravailability.Basedon ethnographic information from hunter-fishergatherersworldwideand from the Pacific NorthwestCoastin particular, thispossibilitywouldseem unlikely.We can say very little aboutthe fishing methodsused in any particularperiod.Thereis a large stone-walledfish trap at the mouth of the Namu River(Carlsonand Dalla Bona 1996:110), but the date of its constructionis unknown.It is likely thata varietyof methodswere used to harvest salmonover the past 7,000 years.Most if not all wouldhaveprovidedampleopportunityto exercise species selection,as for examplein the choice to keeporreturnindividualfishcaughtwithintraps or in the timingof fishingon the riverto coincide with the time thatparticularspecies ascendedthe riverto spawn. The simplest explanationfor the diversityof the salmonfisheryis thatit represents deliberateselectionof a rangeof availablespecies for theirrichness(sockeye)andpreservationqualities (pink and chum). The furtherimplicationis thatthe variablefocus on differentspecies for differentpurposesextendedover the longer term of the fishingseason, as the availabilityof particular species waxed andwaned. REPORTS was primarilyfor the harvestand consumptionof freshfish, then the indiscriminateharvestof large quantitiesof pinkandchumsalmon,alongwiththe richerandthereforemoredesirablesockeyeis more difficultto explain.A series of selective fisheries in thebay andestuaryenvironmentcombinedwith selective harvestof species as they ascendedthe Namu River to spawn entails much longer residency,fromJulythroughto October.If thepurpose in selectingpink and chum salmonin such large numberswas to processthemfor storage,thenthe implicationis thata sizeableportionof the population continuedto reside at the site throughthe winter,upto andincludingthetimeof thepeakherring fisheryin March.The presenceof neo-natal harborseal shows that some people were also at the site aroundmid June. Based on the new level of precision in our knowledgeof the Namu salmonfishery,thereare two optionsto accountfor the availabledata.One is to proposea short-termspecies-indiscriminate freshfood fisheryat the site sometimein mid-tolate summer,with the aggregatepopulationthen dispersingto other locations before returningin the late winter/earlyspringfor the herringfishery. Theotheris to proposea selectivefisheryusingdifferentmethodsto harvestdifferentspecies at differenttimesfordifferentpurposes.Thiswouldhave entailed harvestof richer,fatter species such as sockeye in the summer, largely for fresh consumption,coupled with laterharvestof pink and chumsalmonin even greaternumbersfor the purto sustaina respose of processingandpreservation identpopulationthroughthe winter.Strictlyon the basisof seasonalavailabilityandwithoutinformation concerningthe fishing methodsused, either possibilityis equallylikely.Based on the seasonal andenvironmentalcircumstancesinvolvedandon decision our knowledgeof hunter-fisher-gatherer of the that and in ethnographically making general describedpeoples of the PacificNorthwestCoast in particular,we thinkthe latterpropositionis far morelikely. The resultsof the aDNA analysisgive us new insightinto the natureof the Namufisherythatwe think strengthensthe argumentin favor of early storageandsedentarysettlement,butseasonalindicatorsalone can neverestablishcontinuouspresence at a site with any certainty. Nor can the abundanceof any one resource,even one as well 135 suitedto the purposeas pinksalmon,indicatestorage.Beyondits valuein providingmorepreciseevidence consistentwith storageand sedentism,we think the greaterweight of the aDNA evidence derivesfromthe consistencyof the species profile over the past 7,000 years. The salmon fishery is essentiallythe same in all time periods. If the combinedweight of evidence is insufficientto demonstratea storage-basedeconomyand permanentvillagesettlementas earlyas 7,000 years ago, thenit is also insufficientto demonstratesimilar patternsat any time afterthat date.We think few NorthwestCoast archaeologistswould seriously arguethat salmon storageand multiseason village settlementwere absent anywhereon the coastas recentlyas 1,000yearsago. Giventhatthe evidence looks the same for 7,000 years ago as it does for6,000 yearslater,we see no basisforinferring anythingotherthanthis type of subsistencesettlementsystem as early as the earliest faunal evidence at Namu. The same patternmay extend even furtherback in time, but few sites of earlier date, includingNamu, show any substantialevidence of subsistenceor settlement. Disruptionin the SalmonFishery Analysis of faunalremainsrecoveredin the 1977 and 1978excavationsshoweda cleardeclinein the relativeabundanceof salmon in the periods following 2000 cal B.C. (Cannon 1991). Salmon remainsfromaugersamplesconfirmedthispattern and suggestedit might be even more pronounced (Cannon2000a).Moreintensiveuse of a varietyof alternativeresources,some relativelymarginalin nature,to compensateforthe shortfallsupportsthe interpretationof later periodic disruptionin the salmonfishery(Cannon1995, 2000b; Cannonet al. 1999; Zita 1997). The cause of the decline is stillunknown,thoughCannon( 199 1:39) hadspeculated that siltation of the productivespawning beds in the lowerreachesof the NamuRivermight be responsible.Radiocarbondatinghas shownthat occupationin thevicinityof theRivermouthTrench ended duringthis time, suggestinga reductionin the size of the settlement.Testing and dating of othersites in the area show nearbyvillages were establishedaroundthe same time. Cannon(2002) has suggestedthatthese local andregionaldevelopmentsarelinkedto disruptionsin theNamufishery, which might have encouragedsome families 1 36 [Vol. 71 , No. 1 , 2006] AMERICANANTIQUITY to resettleat alternativevillage locations. Withthe resultsof the aDNA analysiswe can now attributethat disruptionand any subsequent local andregionaleffects specificallyto failuresin the pink fishery.Ourresultspoint to a decline in pinksalmon,whichis evidentin all of the sampled contextsdatingto Period5 andin thosefromPeriod 6 thatpredatecal A.D. 1000. Pinksalmonis either absentor is less thanor equalto the abundanceof otherspecies in all ten samplesfrom six separate excavationcontexts dating to between 1380 cal B.C. andcal A.D. 830 (Table2). It makesup only 17.9 percentof the 39 identifiedsalmonvertebrae from these contexts.In contrast,pink is the most abundantspecies in 17 of the 23 separatesamples from 22 excavationcontexts dating to before or afterthisperiod.It makesup 54.5 percentof the 77 identifiedvertebraefrom these contexts.The fish remainsfromthe FrontTrench(FS 10) excavated by theUniversityof Coloradoin 1970 havenotpreviously been reported,but our aDNA analysis shows apparentrecoveryin the pink salmonfishery aftercal A.D. 1000, and a returnto previous levels up until the time of European contact. Deposits datingto the past 1,000 years were not present in the areas excavatedby Simon Fraser Universityin 1977 and 1978, but recentlyidentified fish remainsfrom unit FS 10 (Table4) show thatthe intensityof the overallsalmonfisheryalso apparentlyrecoveredaftercal A.D. 1000. At thisstagewe do notknowthecauseorcauses of disruptionsin thepinksalmonfisheryorthereasonsforits laterapparent recovery.A newapproach, whichis nowfeasible,will be to determinewhether therewas a dramaticchangein the geneticprofile of the pink salmonpopulationbeforeandafterthe periodof disruption.A clear change will indicate a catastrophicpatternof populationextinctionand recolonization.In contrast,a strongindicationof genetic continuityin the local populationwould suggest a lesser degree of depression on pink salmonproductivityover this periodof time. Thesignificanceof tyingdisruptionof theNamu fishery specificallyto pink salmon is that it suggests an even greaterpotentialimpacton the lives of residentsat the site, since thiswas likelyto have been a storagestaplethatwas criticalfor survival throughthe winter.If failureof this stapleresource was, as is likely, also unpredictable,it mighthave been difficult if not impossible to compensate Table4. Abundanceof Salmon Remainsby Stratumin FrontTrenchUnit FS-10. Associated 14Cdates Stratum FS 10.1 FS 10.2 FS 10.3 480±80 FS 10.4 FS 10.5 FS 10.6 FS 10.7 FS 10.8 680±90 FS 10.9 FS 10.10 FS 10.11 980±100, 1840±80 1470±80 FS 10.12 FS 10.13 FS 10.14 FS 10.15 Salmon Abundance % of fish NISP 70.8 945 74.2 724 NO DATA 696 92.8 96.4 487 742 96.4 1664 97.7 NO DATA 73.6 374 85.6 262 56.5 1652 86.6 181 81.5 1460 85.8 262 87.5 84 throughincreasedemphasison otherspeciesor on salmonobtainedfromotherlocations.The needto resortto more marginalfoods, such as ratfish,at such times would have been that much greater (Cannon1995).The furtherimplicationis thatit is unlikely that periodic failure of the pink fishery was due to increasingsiltationof the NamuRiver estuaryover the long term. Since chum and pink salmonfavorthe same types of spawningground, both species shouldhavebeen equallyaffectedby permanentenvironmentalchange. It is also less likely thatthe pink fisherywould have recovered if this hadbeen the cause of its declineor periodic failure.We cannotyet explainthe disruptionin the pink fishery,but whateverthe cause, our aDNA identificationssuggestwe can at least narrowit to factorsspecificallyrelatedto this one species. Discussion The influence of preconceptionsand prevailing frameworkson archaeologicalinterpretation is well documented(Trigger1989).Wecannotsayforcertain that reluctanceto accept evidence for early salmonstorageand sedentismis due to a consensus among Northwest Coast archaeologiststhat these developmentsarefundamentalthresholdsin the long-termevolution of the region's cultures, butthiswouldnotbe unprecedented. We canpoint to one example where a prevailingview affected the primaryinterpretationof faunal data and its subsequentuse by otherresearchers. REPORTS In his originalinterpretation of the Namu faunaldata,Cannon(1991:43)notedthat"thescale of salmon fishing increaseddramatically"between Period 2 (5000-4000 cal B.C.) and Period 3 (4000-3000 cal B.C.). This interpretationwas basedon observationof an increasein the proportionof salmonamongidentifiedfishremainsother thanherring,from89 percentin Period2 to 98 percent in Periods3 and4. By any measure,a fishery with an 89 percentfocus is still one largelydependenton salmonfishing.Therewas no basisforCannon's exaggerationotherthanthe influenceof an acceptedmodelof long-termculturaldevelopment, proposedby Fladmark(1975), which arguedthat early dependence on salmon coincided with increasedproductivitydue to postglacialenvironmental stabilization at around 4000 cal B.C. Althoughthismodelas developedformajorinland riversystemswas less applicableto small coastal streamsandlake systems(Cannon1996), its onetime widespreadacceptanceas a model for the entireNorthwestCoastaffectedthe interpretation of empiricalobservationsthatshouldhaveemphasized much earlierdependenceon salmon. Cannon'sexaggerationandits basishavesubsequently been reiteratedby other researchers(Ames and Maschner1999:137;Coupland1998:43;Matson andCoupland1995:140). NorthwestCoastarchaeologistsareincreasingly awareof greatervariationin the historyof culture changein theregion,withrecognitionthatstorage, may sedentarysettlement,andsocialdifferentiation not be as closely linkedas once thoughtand may havedevelopedatdifferenttimesin differentplaces on the coast (Ames and Maschner1999; Matson 2003;MatsonandCoupland1995).Thelikelihood thatthese were not aspectsof linearevolution,but wereratherhistoricaldevelopmentsthatmayhave come andgone repeatedlythroughtime is increasingly embraced(Ames 2003; Moss andErlandson 1995;PrentissandChatters2003a,2003b).Despite thismoresophisticatedview of theregion'sarchaeological history,the consensusremainsthatvariabilityin thetimingof thesedevelopmentsis largely confined to the past 3,500 years. Even those researcherswilling to accept the possibility of a fully developed salmon-storage economy and sedentarysettlementat Namuas earlyas 5000 cal B.C. see it moreas anexceptionalcase in the overall historyof theregion(e.g.,Ames 2003:24;Pren- 137 tiss and Chatters2003b:38). Given a consensusof opinion,it seems fair to demanda higherstandardof evidencefor anything thatstandsapartfromprevailingpointsof view.As in any areaof researchthis shouldbe an incentive to improvethe numberandqualityof lines of evidencein supportof contraryopinion.We thinkwe have done this. The aDNA evidence is one more piece in a long line of ancillaryevidencethatsupports Cannon'soriginalinterpretationsregarding the earlypatternandsubsequenthistoryof subsistence and settlementat Namu. We think the evidence is also sufficientto supportdecouplingthe adventof permanentmultiseasonalsettlementsand storage-basedeconomiesfrompopulationgrowth and greatersocial differentiation,as others have also suggested(e.g.,Moss andErlandson1995:34). There is no evidence for large-scale population growth at Namu or anywhereon the Northwest Coastin themillenniaimmediatelyfollowing5000 cal B.C., when salmonstorageand sedentismare firstevident.The earliestindicationof significant populationexpansionin the Namu vicinity is at around1000-500 cal B.C. (Cannon2002).Theevion thecoastis more dencefor socialdifferentiation equivocal,and may be much later,dependingon the definitionused. Even if our view of the Namu salmon fishery and its implicationsis widely accepted,it is currentlyimpossibleto say how widespreadthis pattern might have been. All current views of long-term cultural developments on the coast, whetherbasedon traditionalculturalevolutionary frameworksor more recent Darwinianperspectives, mustrely on few datafrom a very few sites dispersedover a broadarea.New consensusconcerning long-term patterns and developmental trendsmay emergeover time, but these will need to be basedon morethoroughanalysisandon more extensivemultisiteinvestigations.Namuis exceptionalfor the lengthof its occupationalrecordand for the detailof the evidence it has yielded, but it is too soon to say if it is exceptionalfor its early mode of permanentsettlementand storage-based salmonfishingeconomy. Conclusions We have demonstrateda more extensiveapplication of aDNA analysisof faunalremainsthanhas 1 38 AMERICAN ANTIQUITY so farbeengenerallyattemptedin archaeology.We thinkthis researchis also unusualamong emerging aDNA applicationsin its focus on the resolution of a particular existing problem in Our archaeologicalknowledgeandinterpretation. resultsprovidea new level of precisionin ourability to characterizean early salmonfisheryon the NorthwestCoast.They show consistentemphasis in the Namu fishery on pink salmon, as well as strong emphasis on sockeye and chum together with at least some harvestof coho andchinook. We thinkthis new informationprovidesfurther that the site was the supportof the interpretation focus of permanentmultiseasonsettlementand a storageeconomyby at least 5000 cal B.C. A fully developedsettlement-subsistence patternof thiskind atthisearlydateshouldalertresearchers to theneed to rethinkexplanatory frameworks thatstronglylink populationgrowthandsocialcomplexitywithsedentismandstorage-based economies.Wehaveshown thataDNA insightinto the compositionof salmon fisheriesandtheirvariabilityovertimecanalsohelp us to understand betterthe implicationsof resource forpopulationsdependenton storagefor fluctuations wintersubsistence. Wesee greatpotentialforgainingfurtherunderstandingof the diversityand temporalvariability in salmonfisheriesthroughoutthe coast and over time. Insight into the key role of salmon in the archaeologicalhistoriesof the Pacific Northwest Coastcanbe derivedfrommuchwiderapplication of aDNA analysis.Much could be done with the vertebratefaunacollectionsalreadyavailablein the storeroomsof museums,universities,and archaeological consultingfirms.AlthoughancientDNA analysisis andwill remainan expensiveundertaking, on a large-scale,strategicsamplingdesigned to providedatarelevantto specificproblems,possibly coupledwith inferencesfrom vertebrasize, canyieldmorepreciseknowledgeandbetterunderstandingof the historyandimplicationsof salmon fishingon the NorthwestCoast. Acknowledgments.This study was supported by Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada Researchand ResearchDevelopmentInitiativesGrants.We thankRoy L. Carlsonfor encouragingand supportinganalysis of the Namu fauna and Andrew Bartonfor all his assistance in providingaccess to the archivedcollections. 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