Maintaining optimal atmosphere conditions for fruits and
vegetables throughout the postharvest handling chain
J.K. Brecht a,, K.V. Chau b, S.C. Fonseca c, F.A.R. Oliveira d, F.M. Silva e,
M.C.N. Nunes f, R.J. Bender g
a
Horticultural Sciences Department, University of Florida, PO Box 110690, Gainesville, FL 32611-0690, USA
Agricultural and Biological Engineering Department, University of Florida, PO Box 110690, Gainesville, FL 32611-0690, USA
c
Escola Superior de Biotecnologia, Universidade Catolica Portuguesa, Porto, Portugal
d
Department of Process Engineering, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland
e
Escola Superior Agrária de Santarém, Instituto Politécnico de Santarém, Quinta do Galinheiro /S. Pedro, 2001-904 Santarém, Portugal
f
Department of Soils and Agrifood Engineering, University Laval-FSAA, Quebec, Canada G1K 7P4
g
Departamento Horticultura et Silvicultura, Faculdade Agronomia, Universidade Federal Rio Grande do Sul, 91501-970 Porto Alegre,
RS, Brazil
b
Keywords: Controlled atmosphere; Mango; Mixed load; Modified atmosphere; Package design; Snap bean; Strawberry; Temperature;
Transportation
Abstract
Optimal controlled and modified atmospheres (CA and MA) for fresh produce vary according to the specie, its
maturity or ripeness stage, the temperature, and the duration of exposure. However, individual lots of produce are
typically handled for different times and at different temperatures during storage, transportation, and retail display. In
this paper, we review some of our previous work showing the potential for using different atmospheres for mangoes
(Mangifera indica L.) and strawberries (Fragaria /ananassa Duchesne) depending on the anticipated storage length
and temperature. Since it would be desirable, especially for produce transported over extended distances, as in marine
transport, to maintain optimal atmosphere conditions throughout the postharvest handling chain, we also describe our
procedure for designing a combination CA/MAP system that involves first designing the MAP for a particular
commodity that will produce an optimal atmosphere for retail display conditions, then selecting a CA that will interact
with the MAP to produce the optimal atmosphere within the packages during transportation at a lower temperature.
An example of the design procedure is given from our work with fresh-cut kale (Brassica oleracea var. acephala DC.).
Another example of this proposed MAP/CA system deals with its application to mixed load transportation of
strawberries and snap beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.).
Corresponding author. Tel.: /1-352-392-1928; fax: /1-352-392-5653
E-mail address: jkb@ifas.ufl.edu (J.K. Brecht).
1. Introduction
Traditionally, optimal conditions for CA and
MA storage have been selected based on the
understandable goal of achieving maximum extension of postharvest life. This usually leads to
selection of the least advanced maturity or ripeness
stage that will provide minimally acceptable taste
quality and the most extreme O2 and CO2 levels
that the particular commodity is able to tolerate
without injury until its storage life is finally ended
due to deterioration of one quality parameter or
another. The prime example of the success of this
approach is CA storage of apples [Malus sylvestris
(L.) Mill.] and pears (Pyrus communis L.). Application of CA and MA storage to many other fruits
and vegetables has not been nearly as successful,
we feel primarily due to less clear economic
incentives to extend their market seasons, but
also due, in many cases, to inherently shorter
postharvest life spans that result in comparatively
modest potential lifespan extensions from CA and
MA technology. However, the rise in recent years
of international trade in horticultural products
and the consequent extension of transport times
has challenged the ability of postharvest handlers
to deliver high quality products. This, in turn, has
created a new opportunity for application of CA
and MA to products for which a 2- or 3-week-long
transit time may represent a very significant
portion of their potential postharvest life. Similarly, the rise in popularity of fresh-cut vegetables
and fruits has created a large number of extremely
perishable products for which even normal domestic distribution represents a considerable challenge. Virtually all fresh-cut products are by
necessity handled in MAP to achieve the necessary
postharvest lifespan.
Postharvest fruits and vegetables are usually
exposed to varying surrounding temperatures
during handling, transportation, storage and marketing. During marketing, the surrounding temperature is usually higher than during shipping or
storage. The changes in surrounding temperature
create a special problem in MAP design because
the temperature dependence of the respiration rate
is different from that of the permeabilities of MAP
films (Cameron et al., 1993). Due to this fact, it is
difficult to maintain an optimum atmosphere
inside a package when the surrounding temperature is not constant. In order to maintain the same
gas concentrations in varying surrounding temperature conditions, the permeabilities of the
packaging film or perforation must change at the
same rate as the respiration rate over the temperature range of interest (Talasila et al. , 1992, 1995).
Packages are normally designed for specific constant surrounding temperatures. All calculations
of the internal atmosphere in sealed packages
assume constant permeabilities of the film or
perforation and respiration rates of the produce
at some constant temperature (Ben-Arie, 1990).
Several investigators have studied the effects of
temperature and gas concentrations on product
respiration and package O2 and CO2 levels (Beaudry et al., 1992; Talasila et al., 1992; Cameron et
al., 1994; Joles et al., 1994). Because of the
difference in the rates of change of permeability
and respiration rate with temperature, a film that
produces a favorable atmosphere at the optimal
storage temperature may cause excessive accumulation of CO2 and/or depletion of O2 at higher
temperatures, a situation that could lead to metabolic disorders (Beaudry et al., 1992; Cameron et
al., 1993; Exama et al., 1993; Cameron et al., 1994;
Joles et al., 1994). The adverse effect of temperature fluctuations could be counter-balanced by a
safety device such as a temperature responsive
valve or film that allows more O2 to enter the
package at high temperatures (Exama et al., 1993).
Recently, packages have been made commercially
available that the manufacturer claims are able to
automatically adjust permeability in response to
temperature changes by a phase change in the
polymer structure of a semipermeable coating on a
microporous patch (Clarke and DeMoor, 1997).
To complicate things further, some shippers
would like to send mixed loads of several crops
in one large container in order to maximize space
usage and reduce transport cost. It is conceptually
possible to design systems that include MAP inside
a CA container such that the MAP is optimized
for one set of conditions (usually higher temperature warehouse or retail display conditions) and
the CA chosen so that, when used in combination
with that MAP, an optimal within-package atmo-
sphere will develop under a given set of transport
conditions. Such a CA environment, when properly designed, could correct for changes in respiration rates and package gas permeation rates
caused by changes in the surrounding temperature
at different steps in the postharvest handling
sequence. Such a MAP/CA system can, within
limits of temperature and other relevant compatibilities, allow mixed commodity loads to be
transported with each commodity being surrounded by its own optimal atmosphere.
2. Literature review
2.1. Control of the temperature during the
postharvest handling chain
The maintenance of a constant optimal temperature throughout the postharvest handling
chain (i.e. from the grower to the retail display)
is one of the most difficult tasks and is far from
being universally attained. Even when transport by
truck or sea can provide satisfactory temperatures
within the limits of acceptability, the transport
time may be too long for short-life products to be
transported over long distances. On the other
hand, the speed of air transportation makes it a
tempting alternative for transporting highly perishable and very short-life commodities. However,
we should bear in mind that air transport typically
involves a significant break in the cold chain of
perishables handling. The major causes for this
rupture are either the fluctuating or very high/low
temperatures often encountered during flight and
ground operations. As an example, for strawberries shipped from California to Montreal by truck
vs. plane, the most common temperature/time
profiles inside a container, commonly encountered
during postharvest handling operations, are summarized in Table 1 (Emond et al., 1996; Villeneuve
et al., 1999). Although the temperature throughout
the trip by truck can be maintained within the
limits of acceptability, the length of the transport
significantly reduces the marketability time considering the relatively short shelf life of strawberries (5 /7 days). On the other hand, the transport
by plane is very rapid but the temperature is rather
inconsistent and overall not adequate for strawberries.
In fact, the fluctuating temperatures often
encountered during the handling chain can have
a very negative effect on the quality of horticultural crops (Nunes et al., 1999; Nunes et al., 2001).
For example, when we stored ‘Opus’ snap beans at
two different temperature regimes (semi-constant
and fluctuating) typically encountered during
ground and in-flight handling operations, pods
from the semi-constant temperature regime lost
less weight, had better visual ratings for color,
firmness and shriveling, and less incidence of
browning and bruising than those stored in
fluctuating temperatures (Nunes et al., 2001). In
addition, snap beans from the fluctuating temperature were considered unmarketable before
exposure to retail conditions. The semi-constant
temperature was equal to the average of the
fluctuating temperature regime, suggesting that
the temperature fluctuation per se may have had
negative effects separate from that of higher
temperature exposure alone. Results from Nunes
et al. (2001) indicated that, even for short periods
of time, fluctuating and/or high temperatures
during handling might result in rejection of the
whole load.
Given such facts, it is obvious that something
needs to be done in order to improve the conditions endured by horticultural products during
postharvest handling in order to reduce losses and
provide consumers with products of the best
possible quality and safety. For long distance
shipments by land, sea or even air, the establishment of suitable gas compositions (CA or MA)
helps overcome some inherent deficiencies of the
transport technologies and of product postharvest
life.
2.2. Controlled atmosphere storage at non-optimum
temperature conditions
The best way to maintain the quality of fresh
fruits and vegetables is undoubtedly by maintaining an adequate temperature throughout the postharvest handling chain. But as discussed above, a
constant and optimum temperature is rarely either
attained or maintained. Although the use of CA
Table 1
Approximated normal handling times and temperatures for strawberries transported from California to Montreal by truck or plane
Transport by truck
Handling steps
Transport by plane
Time (h)
Warehouse (grower)
12
Truck
96
Distribution center
Truck
Backroom (supermarket)
Retail display
Total
a
12
6
12
48
186
Temperature (8C)
Handling steps
Time (h)
Temperature (8C)
2 /3
3 /7a
3 /7
3 /7
3 /7
3 /7
3 /7
3 /7
8
20
Warehouse (grower)
Truck
Tarmac
Airplane
Tarmac
Truck
Distribution center
Truck
Backroom (supermarket)
Retail display
Total
12
3
2
7
2
5
12
6
12
48
109
2 /3
3 /7
10 (1 h)/20 (1 h)
20
:/ 23
3 /7
3 /7
3 /7
8
20
Maximum value for temperature corresponds to a mixed load of fruits and vegetables that included strawberries.
storage does not replace the benefits of an
optimum storage temperature, it can in some cases
alleviate the effects of non-optimum temperatures.
For example, when we stored ‘Chandler’ strawberries in 5% O2/15% CO2 or 10% O2/20% CO2
for up to 2 weeks at 4 or 10 8C to study the effects
of CA at temperatures above the optimum for
strawberries, the results indicated that the CA was,
in fact, still beneficial (Nunes et al., 1995). However, the benefits of CA storage in terms of
minimizing changes in weight loss, firmness, color
and composition were greater at 4 8C than at
10 8C (Table 2). In contrast, when the two CA
treatments were compared, strawberries stored in
5% O2/15% CO2 lost less weight, maintained
better firmness, and had a lighter, more intense,
pure red color (higher lightness, hue, and chroma
values) than those stored in 10% O2/20% CO2
(Table 2). Furthermore, the 5% O2/15% CO2
maintained higher levels of acidity and soluble
solids than 10% O2/20% CO2, but the latter
maintained higher levels of ascorbic acid.
Storage of pink ‘Buffalo’ tomatoes (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.) in 4% O2/2% CO2 at 12 8C
contributed to extended shelf life (Nunes et al.,
1996). However, storage of these tomatoes in the
same CA at 6 8C caused CO2 injury and accentuated the development of chilling injury symp-
toms such as watersoaking, pitting, discoloration,
and loss of brightness. In contrast, Ratanachinakorn et al. (1997) found that pink ‘Bermuda’
tomatoes were not injured by exposure to 0.5%
O2 for 1 day or 80% CO2 for 2 days at 22 8C.
Results from these and other similar studies
illustrate that O2 and CO2 levels need to be
adjusted to maximize their beneficial effects on
the quality characteristics of fruits and vegetables
depending on the anticipated temperature during
postharvest handling.
2.3. Modified atmosphere packaging at varying
temperatures
In the particular case of highly perishable
products such as fresh-cut fruits or vegetables in
MAP, which have a relatively short shelf-life and
are very vulnerable to temperature abuse, the
maintenance of an adequate temperature near
0 8C is obligatory to keep the product safe for
consumption. Increases in the temperature during
shipping, handling or retail display result in
decreased O2 and increased CO2 levels inside the
package due to a rise in the respiration rate of the
product. Most MAP systems are designed for a
specific temperature, and films with adequate O2
permeability, adequate response to temperature
Table 2
Weight loss, flesh firmness, color, and composition of ‘Chandler’ strawberries after 1-week storage in CA at 4 or 10 8C plus 1 day at 20 8C (from Nunes et al., 1995)
Harvest Temp. (8C) Atmosphere (% O2/CO2)
Weight loss (%)
Flesh firmness (N)
Color
L
Hue
Titratable acidity
(% dry wt)
Soluble solids
(% dry wt.)
Ascorbic acid
(% dry wt.)
Chroma
First
4
10
5/15
4.03
6.67
6.97
5.56
36.71 33.61 39.36
35.19 31.99 36.37
7.74
6.42
64.72
56.99
514.91
425.37
Second
4
10
10/20
8.23
12.83
4.83
4.28
33.93 31.29 33.80
33.91 31.80 32.08
4.98
4.62
52.11
43.07
548.21
510.62
Third
4
10
5/15
5.53
8.23
4.71
4.33
36.11 33.41 36.61
34.94 32.33 34.71
6.04
5.73
53.66
45.71
568.20
404.05
Fourth
4
10
10/20
8.63
11.93
4.70
4.32
35.11 30.76 35.82
32.76 28.52 32.05
5.67
5.03
46.52
41.80
602.93
534.24
1.24
0.29
0.36
2.10
31.03
LSD0.05
0.64
1.13
1.00
variations, or both are rare (Cameron et al., 1995).
Therefore, when the temperature increases, respiration tends to increase more that the permeation of the package, thus creating fermentative
conditions. Nevertheless, many MAP products are
prepared, shipped and stored at temperatures
between 5 and 10 8C (Watada et al., 1996;
Verlinden and Nicolaı̈, 2000) owing to the deficiencies of environmental control often encountered during transportation. Cameron et al. (1995)
reported that in MA-packaged pre-cut salad
greens purchased at a supermarket the O2 levels
measured inside the packages were very low and
ethanol accumulation was present in the majority
of the packages. In this case, the packages were
either not well designed or they were subjected to
higher temperatures than those for which the
packages were designed. Another problem associated with temperature variations during marketing of MAP products is the development of high
humidity inside the package, which favors condensation on the film and on the package contents.
The presence of liquid water (i.e. condensate) may
promote the development of decay (Brackett,
1987) and may also block O2 diffusion into the
tissues and through the film, causing fermentation
(Cameron et al., 1995).
Fluctuating temperatures encountered during
postharvest handling can have particularly negative impacts on the quality of products in MAP
(Chambroy et al., 1993; Sanz et al., 1999; Tano et
al., 1999) due to the danger of reaching injurious
levels of O2 or CO2. It is also possible for O2 and
CO2 levels to become inadequate to control
microbial growth and development or even to
favor microbial proliferation when the temperature increases. Chambroy et al. (1993) stored
‘Pajaro’ strawberries in different MA packages at
10 or 20 8C and observed a rapid reduction of O2
and increase in CO2 during the first 24 h for both
temperatures. However, the growth of pathogens
at 20 8C was relatively high despite the high CO2
content. Although at 10 8C the films tested
provided adequate CO2 levels (5 /10%), for short
periods at 20 8C, only the most permeable films
avoided the risk of metabolic deviation. More
recently Sanz et al. (1999) studied the effects of
commercial handling temperatures (3 days at 2 8C
plus 4 days at 20 8C) used by strawberry producers in southwestern Spain on the quality of
‘Camarosa’ strawberries packed in perforated
polypropylene films and observed that although
the atmosphere inside the packages at 2 8C was
close to that recommended for strawberries, color
quality was reduced and off-flavor developed upon
exposure of the fruit to 20 8C.
In another study, Tano et al. (1999) evaluated
the effects of temperature fluctuations on the
atmosphere inside packages with diffusion windows for gas exchange and their impact on the
quality of mushrooms (Agaricus bisporus Lange).
The authors observed that CO2 levels inside the
packages subjected to fluctuating temperatures
followed the temperature changes, while the O2
decrease that accompanied the first rise in the
temperature remained the same at 1.5% despite
variations in the temperature throughout the
storage. Unchanging O2 levels regardless of the
fluctuating temperatures are probably a result of
irreversible membrane damage and reduced mitochondrial activity (Tano et al., 1999). Unpleasant
odors, loss of tissue firmness, and increased
enzymatic browning can occur due to low O2 (B/
2%) and high CO2 (/12%) levels inside of the
mushroom MAP as a result of temperature
fluctuations.
2.4. Tolerance of different crops to CA under
different conditions
The tolerance of a specific crop to a low O2 level
and/or a high CO2 level may be evaluated by the
onset of fermentation. Simple indicators of fermentation are increases in the RQ (the ratio
between CO2 production and O2 consumption
rates) and the production of ethanol. A linear
relationship exists between the concentration of
ethanol and the RQ (Beaudry, 1993; Joles et al.,
1994). Under aerobic O2 concentrations the RQ
remains relatively constant. As O2 levels decline,
fermentation is induced and the RQ increases, due
to greater production of CO2 with very little or no
consumption of O2. The lowest O2 concentration
surrounding the product that does not induce
fermentation has been expressed as the external
lower O2 limit (LOL), the O2 at the RQ break-
point, the anaerobic compensation point (ACP),
the anaerobic fermentation induction point, or the
fermentation threshold (Boersig et al., 1988; Beaudry et al., 1992; Talasila et al., 1994; Yearsley et
al., 1996; Lakakul et al., 1999).
That the surrounding O2 concentration at the
RQ breakpoint increases with temperature was
first reported for blueberries (Vaccinium corymbosum L.) (Beaudry et al., 1992). These O2 values
increased from 1.8 to 4.0% as the temperature
increased from 5 to 25 8C. Others have since also
reported increases in the O2 tolerance limit with
increasing temperature (Joles et al., 1994; Maneerat et al., 1997; Lakakul et al., 1999). One
possible explanation advanced by Beaudry et al.
(1992) is that the fruit skin’s permeability to O2
does not rise as rapidly as O2 consumption
increases with a temperature rise, leading to an
increase in the lowest external O2 concentration
tolerated by the product. Although Boersig et al.
(1988) suggested, based on work with cultured
pear fruit cells, that there may be a higher O2
requirement for aerobic respiration at higher
temperatures, Yearsley et al. (1997b) found little
effect of temperature on the internal LOL of apple
fruit, save for a sharp increase above 28 8C.
The critical O2 limit may be simple to determine
if the increase in RQ is very pronounced, with a
clear breakpoint. It may be graphically determined
for each experimental temperature due to a sharp
increase of RQ versus O2 concentration (Beaudry
et al., 1992). However, the O2 tolerance limit is
much more difficult to define if the increase in the
RQ is gradual with no clear breakpoint (Joles et
al., 1994). The association between ethanol production and off-flavors with the RQ allowed Joles
et al. (1994) and Lakakul et al. (1999) to suggest
avoidance of RQ values higher than 1.3 to 1.5 in
order to avoid fermentative induction.
Different species have different tolerances for
elevated CO2 and this can influence their critical
O2 limit in CA storage. The LOL of raspberries
(Rubus idaeus L.) at 20 8C did not change with
CO2 levels from 3 to 17% (Joles et al., 1994), which
is within the range tolerated by most berries and
small fruits. Similarly, Beaudry (1993) reported
that the O2 level at the RQ breakpoint was 6 or 7%
at 15 8C for blueberries with CO2 levels of 5 or
20%. However the apparent RQ breakpoint increased to 11% and 23% O2 with CO2 levels of 40
and 60%, respectively. The LOL is also cultivardependent (Gran and Beaudry, 1993; Watkins and
Pritts, 2001). For example, with nine varieties of
apples tested at 0 8C, the LOL ranged from 0.8 to
2.0% O2 (Gran and Beaudry, 1993).
Mathematical modelling of RQ with influencing
variables may allow the critical O2 limit to be
easily predicted. Joles et al. (1994) developed an
empirical model relating RQ with O2 concentration and temperature for raspberries. Lakakul et
al. (1999) empirically fitted the fermentative
threshold of sliced apples with temperature using
an exponential equation and established a practical LOL three times higher than the fitted one.
Beaudry (1993) presented an empirical equation
relating RQ of blueberries with O2 and CO2
concentrations at 15 8C. A different approach
involves modelling the CO2 production due to
fermentation. Beaudry et al. (1993) and Andrich et
al. (1994) applied an exponential function to
describe the fermentative CO2 production. The
fermentative CO2 production has also been modelled based on enzyme kinetics (Banks et al., 1993;
Peppelenbos et al., 1993; Peppelenbos et al., 1996;
Hertog et al., 1998). Hertog et al. (1998) presented
a model of the fermentative CO2 production with a
competitive inhibition for O2 and CO2 and a
temperature dependence according to Arrhenius’
law of the model parameters. LOL values may also
be determined based on internal O2 concentration
instead of the external value (Yearsley et al., 1996;
Yearsley et al., 1997a; Yearsley et al., 1997b).
In addition to temperature, CO2, and cultivar
dependence, the LOL is also duration-dependent,
but this effect has not yet been as intensively
studied as the other factors. Little information is
available about the time dependence of the O2
tolerance limit. Most workers have considered
only an instantaneous time of exposure to the
atmosphere (Beaudry et al., 1992; Beaudry, 1993;
Gran and Beaudry, 1993; Joles et al., 1994;
Maneerat et al., 1997; Lakakul et al., 1999).
Peppelenbos et al. (1993, 1996) averaged the gas
exchange rates between measurements on different
days, ignoring possible time influence. Boersig et
al. (1988) reported a decrease in the ACP, defined
as the O2 concentration for a minimum CO2
production rate, of pear cell cultures after having
been under low O2 treatments for 2, 8 or 21 h at
25 8C. Our observation (Bender et al., 2000) that
the lag time before the onset of ethanol production
by mature-green ‘Haden’ and ‘Tommy Atkins’
mangoes increased from 5 days to more than 2
weeks as O2 concentrations increased from 2 to 5%
suggests the opposite of Boersig et al. (1988),
namely that the O2 tolerance of mangoes decreases
over time with exposure to reduced O2 levels.
However, it is not possible to say with certainty
whether this apparent change is in response to
extended exposure to the reduced O2 or to changes
associated with ripening during storage since we
also observed enhanced ethanol production by
tree-ripe compared with mature-green mangoes
exposed to the same levels of O2 (Bender et al.,
2000).
3. Examples of CA and MA for non-optimal
conditions
3.1. Controlled atmospheres for transport of treeripe mangoes
Mature mangoes do not store well for periods
longer than 2/3 weeks in air at the optimum (i.e.
non-chilling) temperature of 12 8C. Fruit softening occurs very rapidly and is one of the main
causes of quality deterioration during postharvest
handling. Excessive softening renders mangoes
more susceptible to impact and compression
bruises and establishment of postharvest pathogens. In order to avoid the excessive softening of
fully mature mangoes, the fruit are harvested at
earlier stages, resulting in firmer fruit, but with
inevitable negative effects on the final fruit quality.
Consequently, there is a need for the development
of transport and storage conditions to delay softening.
Based on results of CA and MA storage of
temperate fruits, researchers started to investigate
in the 1960s the applicability of CA storage to
extend shelf life and deliver better quality mangoes
to the market. The various combinations of atmospheres and temperatures tested, however, usually
did not show very dramatic results (Yahia, 1998).
These early experiments had the traditional objective of CA storage studies, which was to maximally
extend the storage time for minimally mature fruit.
It is clear from our work, however, that mangoes
can benefit greatly from CA conditions, especially
if fruit are harvested at more advanced ripeness
stages and if a relatively short storage time is
considered that is consistent with typical marine
transport times of 2/3 weeks.
Our first attempt was to evaluate with more
detail different atmosphere combinations, mainly
looking at higher CO2 atmospheres since work in
which insecticidal atmospheres were tested had
shown that mangoes are more tolerant of very
high CO2 levels for short term exposure than had
been suspected based on the previous long-term
CA storage studies (Yahia et al., 1989). It was
possible to establish that 25% CO2 is the upper
limit that mature-green New World mango cultivars tolerate for 3 weeks at 12 8C (Bender et al.,
1994). Atmospheres with CO2 concentrations
higher than 25% resulted in elevated ethanol
production and damage to epidermal color development of the mangoes. Off flavors were also
common.
It also was necessary to define the lower limit of
O2 in the storage atmosphere. The results from our
mango work (Bender et al., 2000) indicate that
reducing O2 atmospheres from 5 to 2% at 12 8C
significantly increases ethanol production rates in
both in ‘Haden’ and ‘Tommy Atkins’ fruit, which
was attributed to upregulation of alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH) isozymes as already observed by
Ke et al. (1990) for pears. Besides the effect of O2
concentration it became evident that ripeness stage
influences ethanol production. For example, ‘Haden’ mangoes that entered a 2-week storage period
at the onset of the climacteric peak produced ten
times more ethanol than preclimacteric mangoes
of the same cultivar (Bender et al., 2000).
From these results we concluded that ripeness
stage also had to be investigated since the current
practice (i.e. harvest at the mature-green stage and
storage in refrigerated air at 12 8C) resulted in
poor visual and eating quality mangoes. When
comparing storage of tree-ripe to mature-green
mangoes at 12 8C, ripening, especially of the tree-
Table 3
Flesh firmness (N) of ‘Tommy Atkins’ mangoes stored in air or
in 5% O2/10 or 25% CO2 for 21 days at 12 or 8 8C (from
Bender, 1996)
Treatment
Mature green
Tree ripe
12 8C
12 8C
8 8C
4.90
10.59
7.06
12.45
14.71
37.75
After 5 additional days in air at 20 8C
Control (air)
n.da
n.d.
5% O2/10% CO2
5% O2/25% CO2
n.d.
n.d.
n.d.
n.d.
11.47
13.14
19.32
LSD (p B/0.05)
2.35
At transfer from storage
Control (air)
21.58
5% O2/10% CO2
23.53
28.44
5% O2/25% CO2
a
synthesis. In our experiments, chroma values of
mesocarp tissue of ‘Keitt’ mangoes stored at 8 8C
were lower after retrieval from the 3-week CA
storage, but after 3 days in air at 20 8C, mesocarp
color development resumed (Table 4).
Ethylene production, as an indication of stress,
of tree-ripe ‘Tommy Atkins’ stored in air at 8 8C
was lower (below 0.05 ml kg1 h1) than ethylene
production of tree ripe fruit at 12 8C (between
0.05 and 0.1 ml kg1 h1). After transfer to air at
20 8C, ethylene production of fruit from 8 8C was
still lower than that of fruit stored at 12 8C.
‘Keitt’ mangoes stored at 8 8C repeated the same
pattern. After a 5-day transfer period to air at
20 8C, ethylene production remained low, less
than 0.3 ml kg1 h1.
n.d., not determined due to over-ripening.
3.2. Design of a combination CA/MAP system for
handling fresh-cut kale
ripe fruit, was not hindered. These fruit came out
of the 3-week storage period too soft (Table 3).
Total sugars and titratable acidity (data not
shown) were also affected (Bender, 1996). From
this point on we concluded that in order to assure
good quality fruit after a 3-week CA storage
period, temperature had to be reduced below
12 8C. Several experiments were conducted in
which tree-ripe mangoes were stored in atmospheres of 5% O2 plus 10 or 25% CO2 at
temperatures of 8 8C or even 5 8C.
The reduction of storage temperature had a
significant effect on quality, especially fruit firmness. There was a striking additive effect of 8 8C
storage temperature and CA with 25% CO2 on
fruit firmness, which was maintained for 3 weeks
in CA and during an additional 5 days in air at
20 8C for both ‘Tommy Atkins’ (Table 3) and
‘Keitt’ (data not shown) mangoes. Neither cultivar
at the tree-ripe stage stored at 8 8C exhibited any
evidence of chilling injury as indicated by visible
symptoms or by elevated ion efflux of mesocarp
tissue at retrieval from CA storage. There were,
however, indications of both chilling injury and
CO2 injury when the mangoes were stored in CA
with 25% CO2 at 5 8C.
Chaplin et al. (1991) reported that chilled
mango fruit had a paler mesocarp tissue color,
which was associated with reduced carotenoid
The design of a combination CA/MAP system
to accommodate different temperatures during
transport and retail display is a simple procedure
that involves four steps (Brecht et al., 2002): first it
is necessary to establish the design criteria, i.e.
desired temperatures, times, and package O2 and
CO2 levels; next the respiration rates for the
desired temperatures and atmospheres must be
known or determined empirically; the MAP system is designed to maintain the optimum atmospheric conditions at the higher, retail display
temperature with surrounding air; finally, the
Table 4
Mesocarp tissue chroma values of ‘Keitt’ mangoes stored in air
or in 5% O2/10 or 25% CO2 for 21 days at 8 8C plus 3 days in
air at 20 8C (from Bender, 1996)
Treatment
At transfer from
storage
After 3 additional days in
air at 20 8C
Initial
Control (air)
5% O2/10%
CO2
5% O2/25%
CO2
LSD
(p B/0.05)
58.05
58.84
51.82
56.20
60.42
56.00
61.82
3.36
surrounding CA conditions that will maintain the
optimum atmospheric conditions within the MAP
for the lower, transport temperature are calculated. The equations to calculate the required flux
of gas through a package at steady state are:
For perforation-mediated MAP
KO2 (yeO2 yeq
O2 ) RO2 M
(1)
e
KCO2 (yeq
CO2 yCO2 )RCO2 M
(2)
and for MAP using polymeric film,
PO2 A
L
(yeO2 yeq
O2 )RO2 M
PCO2 A
L
e
(yeq
CO2 yCO2 )RCO2 M
(3)
(4)
where K is the mass transfer coefficient for gas
through a tube in mol Pa 1 s 1; ye and yeq are the
gas partial pressures (Pa) outside the package and
the equilibrium gas partial pressures within the
package, respectively; R is the respiration rate of
the product in mol kg1 s 1; M is the mass of
product in kg; P is film permeability in mol m 2
m Pa1 s 1; and A and L are film area and
thickness in m2 and m, respectively. For packages
using a tube, the tube dimensions (i.e. length and
diameter) must be defined in order to calculate the
mass transfer coefficients as described by Fonseca
et al. (2000). Use of a single tube in a package is
assumed here because draft effects occur when two
or more tubes or perforations are used, greatly
complicating the package design. For example, gas
exchange rates for two tubes are faster than three
times those observed for a single tube (Fonseca,
2001). For packages using polymeric film, the film
surface area and thickness must be defined in
order to select a film with the necessary permeability coefficients. For microperforated films,
empirical determination of the effective film permeability is necessary.
Shredded Galega kale is a traditional fresh-cut
vegetable in Portugal. The thinly sliced leaves are
an ingredient in a traditional soup called ‘caldo
verde’. The shredded kale is commonly prepared at
the retail level prior to display for sale at ambient
store temperatures, however, the shelf life is very
short, typically 1 day or less. A combination CA/
MAP system could allow preparation of fresh
shredded Galega kale to be carried out at central
distribution facilities, with associated reductions in
the cost of production. We determined the optimum atmosphere for fresh-cut kale during 4 days
in MAP at 20 8C (i.e. simulated retail display) to
be about 1/2% O2/15 /20% CO2 (Fonseca et al.,
2002a). At 1 8C, the optimum atmosphere would
be around 1% O2/10% CO2. The respiration rates
for fresh-cut kale (Table 5) are from a model
developed from measurements of O2 uptake and
CO2 production in all combinations of 1, 5 and
10% O2 plus 0, 10 and 20% CO2 at 1, 5, 10, 15 and
20 8C (Fonseca et al. 2002b). The gas fluxes
shown in Table 5 are those required to establish
an equilibrium atmosphere of 2% O2 plus 17%
CO2 at 208C in a MAP with surrounding air. In
order to design such an MAP system, either the
tube dimensions (for a perforation-mediated
MAP) or the film type and film surface area plus
film thickness (for a film-based MAP) that result
in the required flux have to be determined. For this
example, a perforation-mediated package is the
only possible approach because the ratio of CO2
and O2 permeance must be nearly unity in order to
establish the optimum atmosphere combination.
In order to determine the necessary surrounding
gas composition at the lower, transit temperature
that will result in the desired equilibrium gas
composition in the package, the effect of temperature on the product respiration and the film
permeability or gas diffusion (for a perforationmediated package) must be taken into account.
Based on (1) the desired gas levels inside the MAP
at 1 8C, (2) the respiration rate for that temperature and atmosphere, and (3) the gas flux at 1 8C
(assumed to be 10% less in this example), the
surrounding CA for the lower (i.e. transit) temperature can be computed.
For this example, using the equations given
above to calculate yeO2 and yeCO2 for the desired
package atmosphere composition of 1% O2 plus
10% CO2 at 1 8C results in:
yeO2 0:122 106 0:15
4:403 1012
5071 Pa 5:0%
101325
100
1
0.03
7.1
20.8
5.0
5.040/10 12
4.536/10 12
0.578/10 6
0.114/10 6
20
1
0.15
2
1
17
10
0.621/10 6
0.122/10 6
4.892/10 12
4.403/10 12
CO2
(%)
O2
(%)
KCO
2
(mol Pa 1 s 1)
KO
2
(mol Pa 1 s 1)
CO2 production
(mol kg 1 s 1)
O2 uptake
(mol kg1 s 1)
CO2
(%)
O2
(%)
Outside O2 and
CO2 levels
Required gas flux for desired O2 and
CO2 levels in package
Desired O2 and CO2 Respiration rates at desired O2 and CO2 levels
levels
Temperature Amount per package
(8C)
(kg)
Table 5
Required package gas flux at 20 8C for MAP of shredded kale to produce steady state package levels of 2% O2 and 17% CO2 with surrounding air, and the surrounding
O2 and CO2 levels (i.e. CA) required to produce steady-state levels of 1% O2 and 10% CO2 in the same MA package at 1 8C (from Brecht et al., 2002)
yeCO2 101325
0:114 106 0:15
10
100
4:536 1012
7179 Pa 7:1%
(])
Thus, a perforation-mediated MAP for
shredded kale that develops an equilibrium atmosphere of 2% O2 plus 17% CO2 at 20 8C will
develop the desired atmosphere of 1% O2 plus 10%
CO2 at 1 8C if stored in a surrounding CA of 5.0%
O2 plus 7.1% CO2.
3.3. A combination CA/MAP system for
transportation of mixed loads of strawberries and
snap beans
In the following example, we attempted to
demonstrate the feasibility of designing a procedure whereby proper atmospheres are maintained
for a mixed load of two fresh products in a CA/
MAP system when exposed to a low temperature
for a few days followed by 2 days at near ambient
temperature and atmosphere (Silva et al., 1999).
This simulated the situation where the two products are shipped in mixed loads under refrigeration followed by 2 days of display in the store.
Strawberries and snap beans were used to test the
procedure. This experiment was carried out by
first storing the MAP products in CA at 7 8C for
4 days (simulated transportation or storage conditions) and then in air at 19 8C for another 2
days (simulated retail display). Recommended
storage conditions for strawberries and snap beans
are 0/5 8C and 5 /10% O2 plus 15 /20% CO2 and
4/7 8C and 2/3% O2 plus 10/12% CO2, respectively (Refrigeration Research Foundation, 1988;
Kader, 1993; Saltveit, 1993; Costa et al., 1994;
Costa, 1995). Since no published information was
available indicating the best atmosphere at typical
retail display temperatures, for the purposes of this
experiment, the proper atmosphere at 19 8C for
strawberries and snap beans was assumed to be the
same as at 7 8C or lower temperatures.
In order to obtain the proper atmosphere for
strawberries, any package used must have a
permeance ratio for CO2 and O2 of approximately
one. Tubes or perforations have this permeance
ratio. Therefore, a glass jar fitted with a small
brass tube inserted in the lid was adopted as the
container that would provide the MA for the
strawberries. The tube diameter and length were
chosen based on preliminary experiments to obtain
respiration rate data at 19 8C, previously measured respiration rate data under different atmospheres (Talasila et al., 1992), and by using a MAP
computer program (Silva, 1995). Jars (3.8-l) containing 1 kg of strawberries and fitted with a 12
mm-diameter /40 mm-long brass tube were used.
The transmission rates for O2 and CO2 at 7 8C
were, respectively, 2.54 /10 6 and 2.29 /106
mol atm1 s 1 and at 19 8C were, respectively,
2.98 /10 6 and 2.54 /106 mol atm 1 s 1
(Silva, 1995). The CO2:O2 permeance ratio was
0.9 at both temperatures. The predicted respiration rate at 19 8C was 2.8 /107 mol kg1 s 1
(Talasila et al., 1992). The predicted atmosphere
inside the strawberry MAP was 10.0% O2 plus
11.3% CO2 at 19 8C in surrounding ambient air
and 10.0% O2 plus 11.8% CO2 at 7 8C in
surrounding CA of 14.8% O2 plus 8.3% CO2.
For snap beans, a permeable plastic film bag
(‘Fresh Pak’, SR Plastics, Denver, CO) was chosen
based on the film permeability ratio requirement
(:/1.4). The bag has a thickness of 38.10 mm and
dimensions of 30.5 /40.2 cm. The O2 and CO2
permeances at 7 8C were, respectively, 1.46 /
1010 and 2.65 /1010 mol Pa1 s 1 m2 and
at 19 8C were, respectively, 2.05 /1010 and
3.62 /1010 mol Pa1 s 1 m 2. The permeance
ratio was about 1.8 at both temperatures. The
plastic bags were thermosealed after being filled
with snap beans. Because reliable information on
snap bean respiration at various temperatures and
atmospheres was not available at the time of the
experiment, computer predictions for the gas
concentrations inside the MAP were not possible.
Based on the results of preliminary tests carried
out with different snap bean weights inside the
bags at 19 8C, a product weight of 0.5 kg was
chosen.
Concerning strawberry MAP, overall the O2
level was maintained within the recommended
range at both temperatures (Table 6). The CO2
levels inside the strawberry jars at 7 and 19 8C
were maintained at about 13% and 16 /19%,
respectively (Table 6), with the levels at 19 8C
much larger than those predicted. The change in
gas levels and deviation from predicted gas levels
at 19 8C, especially on day 6, might have been due
to two possible reasons: (a) error in the estimation
of the respiration rate; and (b) fungal growth.
Decay (gray mold rot due to Botrytis cinerea) was
visible on a few strawberries on the second day at
Table 6
Atmospheres achieved inside MAP for strawberries and snap beans using a combination CA/MAP system (from Silva et al., 1999)
Commodity
Strawberry
Amount per package (kg)
1.0
Temperature (8C)
7
19
Snap bean
0.5
7
19
a
b
Day Surrounding atmosphere (%)
Package atmosphere (%)
O2
CO2
O2
1
2
3
4
5
6
14.8 (0.4)a
8.3 (0.3)
13.6
11.8
11.0
11.0
9.2
6.9
1
2
3
4
5
6
14.8 (0.4)
Ambient air
8.3 (0.3)
Ambient air
Numbers in parentheses */standard deviation of means for three replicate chambers or packages.
Not determined.
CO2
(1.0)
(0.3)
(0.3)
(0.4)
(0.7)
(0.7)
n.d.b
n.d.
2.6 (1.1)
3.2 (0.9)
3.9 (1.3)
5.2 (0.7)
8.2
12.1
13.1
13.3
15.8
19.2
(0.7)
(0.1)
(0.1)
(0.4)
(0.8)
(1.4)
n.d.
n.d.
15.9 (2.5)
15.1 (1.3)
12.1 (3.9)
9.0 (1.6)
19 8C. It is possible that the MA at 19 8C, which
was within the recommended range for strawberries at lower storage temperatures, was not sufficient to control gray mold rot development at
19 8C.
The ‘Fresh Pak’ bags containing snap beans
reached a steady state atmosphere in the CA
container at 7 8C of about 3% O2 plus 15% CO2
(Table 6). Thus, under CA at 7 8C, the CO2 level
went beyond the maximum recommended level of
12%. The O2 level for snap beans slightly increased
and the CO2 level decreased from 15 to 12% when
the snap bean bags were changed from 7 8C/CA
to 19 8C/ambient air conditions (Table 6). Thus,
due to different CO2 requirements for the two
products, the within-package CO2 levels at 7 8C
were higher than the recommended value for snap
beans and lower than the recommended value for
strawberries. A slight increase in strawberry weight
or a lower permeability tube would achieve better
results for strawberries. No improvements in CO2
levels could be made by changing the CA because
an improvement in the snap bean ‘Fresh Pak’ bags
would require a decrease in CO2, while the
strawberry jars needed higher CO2.
Although the proposed CA/MAP system was
investigated at only two temperatures, the basic
approach should work when products are exposed
to more than two temperatures. If, for example,
between refrigerated shipment and retail display,
the products are kept in a warehouse at another
temperature, a second CA or a pallet-scale MAP
system at the warehouse may be used to maintain
the recommended levels of O2 and CO2 inside the
MA packages.
When shipping mixed loads, only a limited
number of combinations of compatible commodities may be shipped together in the same container, even with a CA/MAP system, because of
their different temperature and atmosphere requirements.
4. Conclusion
Maximum extension of postharvest life is not
necessarily the only possible goal of CA or MAP
technologies. If transport of a horticultural pro-
duct at a more perishable but higher quality
maturity stage from point A to point B is desired,
then the optimum atmosphere conditions will
likely be much different than for a less perishable
maturity stage of the product intended for longterm storage. In designing CA, MA or MAP
systems for horticultural crops, it would be
prudent to realistically evaluate the time and
temperature conditions that the products will
likely encounter along the postharvest chain, as
well as the likelihood of mixed load conditions. It
then will become possible to design systems such
as a combination CA/MAP that can maintain
optimum atmospheres throughout the postharvest
handling chain.
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