Psychology of Sport and Exercise 12 (2011) 533e539
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Psychology of Sport and Exercise
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/psychsport
Well-being in volleyball players: Examining the contributions of independent
and balanced psychological need satisfactionq
Diane E. Mack a, *, Philip M. Wilson a, Kristin G. Oster b, Kent C. Kowalski c,
Peter R.E. Crocker d, Benjamin D. Sylvester b
a
Department of Physical Education and Kinesiology, Brock University, 500 Glenridge Ave, St. Catharines, Ontario, Canada L2S 3A1
Faculty of Applied Health Sciences, Brock University, Canada
College of Kinesiology, University of Saskatchewan, Canada
d
School of Human Kinetics, University of British Columbia, Canada
b
c
a r t i c l e i n f o
a b s t r a c t
Article history:
Received 7 August 2010
Received in revised form
15 March 2011
Accepted 14 May 2011
Available online 23 May 2011
Objectives: The purpose of this investigation was to test associations between the fulfillment of basic
psychological needs and two dimensions of psychological well-being using (a) an additive model and (b)
a balanced model.
Design: This study employed a non-probability based sampling and a cross-sectional design.
Methods: Collegiate volleyball players (N ¼ 219; nfemales ¼ 127) completed a battery of self-report
instruments.
Results: Aligned within Basic Psychological Needs Theory (Deci & Ryan, 2002) and study hypotheses
(Sheldon & Niemiec, 2006), results demonstrated that basic psychological need fulfillment was associated with psychological well-being in the context of volleyball (R2adj ranged from 0.20 to 0.35). Balanced
psychological need fulfillment was generally predictive, albeit minimally, of well-being indices beyond
the contributions made by perceived competence, autonomy and relatedness.
Conclusions: This investigation highlights the need for further study of BPNT in the realm of sport
including assessments of balanced need satisfaction on markers of well-being.
Ó 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords:
Psychological need satisfaction
Sport
Well-being
Despite the established association between sport participation
and various indices of well-being (Biddle & Mutrie, 2008; Bouchard,
Blair, & Haskell, 2007), the magnitude of the relationship has been
weaker than expected (e.g., Greenleaf, Boyer, & Petrie, 2009). In an
effort to explain the above, researchers (e.g., Shaffer & Wittes, 2006)
have speculated that the effects of sport participation on well-being
may be indirect (as opposed to direct) through consideration of other
psychological factors. Self-Determination Theory (SDT; Deci & Ryan,
2002, 2008) represents one theoretical approach through which
insight into the mechanisms responsible for variation in well-being
has been examined. One component of the SDT framework is Basic
Psychological Needs Theory (BPNT; Deci & Ryan, 2002) which posits
q Funding support for this project was secured through the Social Sciences and
Humanities Research Council of Canada. The third and sixth authors were supported by Masters scholarships awarded through the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada during manuscript preparation. Our gratitude is
extended to those athletes who volunteered their time to contribute to this
manuscript.
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: dmack@brocku.ca (D.E. Mack).
1469-0292/$ e see front matter Ó 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2011.05.006
the existence of innate psychological needs for competence,
autonomy and relatedness. Competence refers to feeling proficient in
dealing with optimal challenges presented within ones’ social milieu
(White, 1963). Autonomy concerns feeling agentic and volitional in
the behaviors undertaken such that one’s actions are self-endorsed
with an internal locus of causality rather than to service external
agenda (deCharms,1968). Relatedness reflects the need for satisfying
and supportive social relationships (Baumeister & Leary, 1995).
One proposition central to the development of BPNT according to
Deci and Ryan (2002) concerns the direct role played by the authentic
fulfillment of each psychological need on well-being. Coined the
“additive” (p. 331) model (Sheldon & Niemiec, 2006), feeling
competent, a sense of autonomy, and securely related to others is
essential such that each psychological need exerts a unique direct
effect on markers of well-being. Support for the ‘additive’ model has
been reported across varied domains (cf., Deci & Ryan, 2008)
including sport (cf., Ryan & Deci, 2007) with small to moderate
relationships noted between psychological need satisfaction and
markers of ill-being (e.g., reduced burnout; Eklund & Cresswell,
2007; Hodge, Lonsdale, & Ng, 2008) and well-being (e.g., higher
self-esteem; Amorose, Anderson-Butcher, & Cooper, 2009; Gagné,
534
D.E. Mack et al. / Psychology of Sport and Exercise 12 (2011) 533e539
Ryan, & Bargmann, 2003; Lightheart, Wilson, & Oster, 2010; Reinboth
& Duda, 2006; Reinboth, Duda, & Ntoumanis, 2004) in athletes.
Extrapolating from the ‘additive’ model, Sheldon and Niemiec
(2006) advanced a complementary approach (i.e., the ‘balanced’
model) for understanding the role of satisfying basic psychological
needs within BPNT. ‘Balanced’ psychological need fulfillment
suggests that well-being is a function not only of the absolute level
of each psychological need satisfied (i.e., the ‘additive’ model), but
also the degree to which fulfillment of competence, autonomy and
relatedness needs operate synergistically in a state of “equilibrium”
(Perreault, Gaudreau, Lapointe, & Lacroix, 2007, p. 446). As such,
individuals reporting less variability (i.e., more balance) across the
three basic psychological needs demonstrate higher levels of wellbeing beyond the contributions of each individual psychological
need expressed in the ‘additive’ model. Across a series of seminal
studies Sheldon and Niemiec (2006) documented support for the
‘balanced’ model as lower variability among the three psychological needs predicted variation in well-being beyond the contributions of constructs embedded within the ‘additive’ model. Further
to this, Sheldon and Gunz (2009) demonstrated that individuals
lower in one psychological need (in comparison to other needs) are
motivated to reduce this disparity.
Initial sport-based research examining the role of ‘additive’ and
‘balanced’ models in relation to a marker of ill-being (i.e., athlete
burnout) reported somewhat contradictory findings (AndersonButcher & Amorose, 2008; Perreault et al., 2007). With the anticipated negative association between balanced need satisfaction and
burnout demonstrated, only Perreault et al. (2007) noted that
balanced need fulfillment statistically contributed to athlete
burnout beyond that found for individual effects for each psychological need. More recently, adopting global self-esteem as the
outcome variable, Lightheart et al. (2010) demonstrated support for
the ‘additive’, but not the ‘balanced’ model, within a diverse sample
of individuals living with disability who compete in adapted sport.
Despite this emerging body of literature, Gagné and Blanchard
(2007) suggest that further investigation of key assumptions
embedded within BPNT (Deci & Ryan, 2008) is warranted to enhance
our understanding of ‘when’ and ‘how’ feelings of competence,
autonomy, and relatedness impact well-being in the context of sport.
One opportunity to extend BPNT (Deci & Ryan, 2008) research is
through consideration of the conceptualization of well-being. Wellbeing has been defined as “a dynamic and relative state where one
maximizes his or her physical, mental, and social functioning in the
context of supportive environments to live a full, satisfying, and
productive life” (Kobau, Sneizek, & Zack, 2009, p. 4) with two broad
conceptualizations advanced in the literature (Ryan & Deci, 2001).
Hedonic well-being (HWB) has been defined as subjective happiness
and the experience of pleasure (Ryan & Deci, 2001) and is typically
operationalized as high levels of pleasurable affect, the absence of
negative affect, and high life satisfaction. With human nature portrayed as passive in the hedonic tradition, eudaimonic philosophy
establishes human nature to be an active process inclusive of motivational and behavioral components (Chatzisarantis & Hagger, 2007;
Ryff & Keyes, 1995). Eudaimonic well-being (EWB) reflects optimal
psychological functioning and is the outcome of positive goal
pursuits (Ryan, Huta, & Deci, 2008). Although not universally
endorsed (e.g., Kashdan, Biswas-Diener, & King, 2008), theoretical
reviews (Ryan & Deci, 2001) and empirical evidence (Gallagher,
Lopez, & Preacher, 2009; Huppert & Whittington, 2003; Steger,
Kashdan, & Oishi, 2008) have purported distinctions between
hedonic and eudaimonic forms of well-being.
Consideration of the ‘balanced’ model (Sheldon & Niemiec, 2006)
represents one meaningful extension to the development of BPNT
(Deci & Ryan, 2002). However, considerable scope for further inquiry
to determine the relative merits of both the ‘additive’ and ‘balanced’
models to understanding how psychological need fulfillment in sport
impacts well-being criterion within BPNT exists. First, the focus of
sport-related literature examining the role of ‘balanced’ versus
‘additive’ models of psychological need satisfaction has centered on
markers of ill-being such as burnout (e.g., Amorose et al., 2009;
Perreault et al., 2007) as opposed to well-being (cf., Lightheart
et al., 2010), despite Deci and Ryan’s (2002) contentions that fulfilling psychological needs impacts well-being rather than detracts
from ill-being. Consequently, investigation to determine the predictive effects attributed to “balanced” need satisfaction in combination
with the “additive” model on markers of well-being was undertaken
in the present investigation. Second, eudaimonic well-being (i.e.,
optimal functioning) is minimally understood in comparison to its
hedonic (i.e., the pursuit of pleasure) counterpart (Gagné &
Blanchard, 2007). With evidence suggestive that the absence of
eudaimonic well-being, rather than the presence of hedonic wellbeing, is more directly linked with mortality and health (Clark &
Watson, 1991; Huppert & Whittington, 2003), consideration of
well-being in both its forms is warranted. Finally, most of the aforementioned investigations have focused on global indices of wellbeing (e.g., Lightheart et al., 2010) despite calls for more consistent
examination of context-specific markers embedded within a specific
social environment (Amorose et al., 2009). As need satisfaction is
largely contextually determined (Deci & Ryan, 2008), context-specific
markers of study variables were assessed in the present investigation.
The purpose of this investigation was to examine the contribution of both ‘additive’ and ‘balanced’ models of psychological
need satisfaction in relation with hedonic and eudaimonic forms of
well-being in a sample of collegiate volleyball players. Consistent
with Deci and Ryan (2002), it was hypothesized that greater
satisfaction of competence, autonomy, and relatedness needs
individually would be associated with higher levels of hedonic and
eudaimonic well-being. Given the equivocal nature of previous
investigations (Lightheart et al., 2010; Perreault et al., 2007),
hypotheses were not advanced specific to the unique contribution
of ‘balanced’ need satisfaction.
Methods
Participants
Collegiate volleyball players (N ¼ 219; 57.80% females1;
Mage ¼ 20.03; SDage ¼ 1.82; R ¼ 18e28 years) participated in this
investigation. The majority of participants identified their ethnicity as
“Caucasian/White” (n ¼ 195; 89.90%). Participant Body Mass Index
(BMI) values ranged from 17.58 to 31.71 kg/m2 with male
(M ¼ 23.80 kg/m2; SD ¼ 2.35) and female (M ¼ 21.82 kg/m2;
SD ¼ 1.95) participants on average classified in the normal category
of risk classifications (Health Canada, 2009). Participants reported
playing with their current collegiate volleyball team for approximately
twelve months which equates to two seasons (M ¼ 11.22; SD ¼ 7.70;
R ¼ 0e34 months). Combined, middle and left side positions accounted for more than half of the reported playing positions (55.50%)
with over half (60.60%) reporting starting for their current team.
Measures
Demographics
Participants were asked to self-report variables such as age,
gender, ethnicity, height/weight, position, and starting status.
1
An independent samples t-test revealed no statistically significant (p > 0.05)
differences by gender (Cohen’s d ¼ 0.14 to 0.08; Cohen, 1988) across any of the
study variables.
D.E. Mack et al. / Psychology of Sport and Exercise 12 (2011) 533e539
Basic psychological need satisfaction
Participants completed three modified instruments as indices of
psychological need fulfillment including: the 5-item Perceived
Competence subscale of the Intrinsic Motivation Inventory (IMI-PC;
McAuley, Duncan, & Tammen, 1989), and 6 and 8 items from the
Basic Need Satisfaction at Work Scale to assess perceived autonomy
(BNS-A) and relatedness (BNS-R) respectively (Deci, Ryan, Gagné,
Leone, Usunov, & Kornazheva, 2001). A stem preceded each set of
items to direct participant responses to the degree they felt their
psychological needs were fulfilled during the time they engaged in
volleyball. Sample items used within this study were as follows (a)
IMI-PC (“I think I am pretty good at volleyball”); (b) BNS-A (“I am
free to express my ideas and opinions at volleyball”); and (c) BNS-R
(“I get along with people at volleyball”). Item responses were
provided on a 7-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (Not at all true) to
7 (Very true). The IMI-PC and BNS-A (McAuley et al., 1989; Reinboth
& Duda, 2006; Reinboth et al., 2004) and BSN-R (Gray & Wilson,
2008) have previously been modified for use within different
sport contexts (McAuley et al., 1989; Reinboth & Duda, 2006;
Reinboth et al., 2004) with support for the construct validity of
test scores noted.
Well-being
Participants completed two instruments to assess hedonic and
eudaimonic markers of well-being. Consistent with the conceptual
definition of hedonic well-being (Kahneman, Diener, & Schwarz,
1999), the short form of the Positive and Negative Affect Scale
(PANAS; Mackinnon et al., 1999) was administered. The PANAS is
designed to assess the intensity associated with positive (5-items;
Sample item: “enthusiastic”) and negative (5-items; Sample item:
“distressed”) affect. Items were presented following a contextual
stem “This scale consists of a number of words that describe
different feelings and emotions. Please answer the following
questions by considering how you typically feel when participating
in volleyball using the scale provided.” Items were assessed across
a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (Very slightly or not at all) to 5
(Extremely). The PANAS has been used in previous sport research
supporting the construct validity of score interpretations from this
instrument (Sanchez, Boschker, & Llewellyn, 2010).
Participants completed the 7-item Subjective Vitality Scale (SVS;
Ryan & Frederick, 1997) as one marker of eudaimonic well-being
(Ryan et al., 2008). Following the stem “please respond to each of
the following statements by indicating the degree to which the
statement is true for you when you engage in volleyball”, each item
was rated across a 7-point Likert scale anchored at the extremes
from 1 (Not at all true) to 7 (Very true). A sample SVS item used in
this study was “I feel energized.” Support for the construct validity
of the SVS score interpretations in sport contexts has been documented in previous studies (e.g., Reinboth et al., 2004).
Procedure
Following ethical approval and consistent with Dillman’s (2006)
recommendations for maximizing responses to survey research,
head coaches affiliated with the Canadian College Athletic Association (N ¼ 82) were contacted via electronic mail and informed of
the study’s purpose. Coaches who agreed to allow participant
recruitment (n ¼ 27; 33.00%) from their team provided either (a)
a team roster including contact e-mails for players or (b) agreed to
a mutually convenient time for face-to-face recruitment. Regardless
of participant recruitment method, athletes were presented with
a standardized Letter of Invitation to reduce the potential for
between-subjects effects associated with test administration
(Pedhazur & Pedhazur-Schmelkin, 1991). Following the provision of
informed consent, participants were asked to complete the paper-
535
Table 1
Descriptive statistics and internal consistency of study variables.
Competence
Autonomy
Relatedness
Balanced need fulfillment
Vitality
Positive affect
Negative affect
M
SD
Skewness
Kurtosis
a
5.43
4.61
5.83
7.33
5.61
4.16
1.92
0.82
0.71
0.90
1.40
0.95
0.59
0.65
0.78
0.23
0.93
0.79
0.66
0.96
0.93
1.18
0.40
0.33
2.90
0.30
1.32
0.56
0.83
0.54
0.85
e
0.88
0.79
0.75
Note: M ¼ mean; SD ¼ standard deviation; a ¼ internal consistency estimates
(Cronbach a; Cronbach, 1951).
and-pencil or electronic version of the questionnaire on a single
occasion2. Participant response rate regardless of recruitment
method was 72.26 percent with a total of 226 collegiate volleyball
players consenting to participate in this investigation.
Data analyses
Preliminary data analyses were conducted to assess occurrence
and patterns of missing values, univariate normality (i.e., skewness
and kurtosis) of study variables, and estimates of internal consistency reliability (i.e., Cronbach’s a; Cronbach, 1951). Descriptive
statistics and bivariate correlation (Pearson r) coefficients were then
calculated across all study variables. Sheldon and Niemiec’s (2006)
approach to calculate ‘balance’ was adopted whereby Total DiverP
gence
(TD) ¼ [(jcompetence autonomyj) þ (jcompetence relatednessj) þ (jautonomy relatednessj)]. TD represents the sum
of the absolute value for the difference between each pair of individual psychological need satisfaction scores. An overall ‘balance’
score was then calculated by subtracting each participant’s
observed TD score from the upper value evident in the range of TD
scores within this sample. Lastly, separate hierarchical multiple
regression analyses (HRMA) were conducted to test the relationship
between ‘additive’ and balanced’ models of psychological need
satisfaction and well-being indices. Relevant statistical assumptions
and the calculation of effect sizes (f 2; Cohen, 1988) were conducted
in conjunction with the HMRA. To predict each facet of well-being,
basic psychological need fulfillment was entered in Model 1 (i.e., the
‘additive’ model) followed by the addition of ‘balanced’ need satisfaction in Model 2 (i.e., the ‘balanced’ model). As such, Model 2 was
interpreted as the unique variance of ‘balanced’ need satisfaction on
well-being beyond the contribution of the ‘additive’ approach.
Results
Preliminary analyses and descriptive statistics
Data was screened for non-respondents and patterns of missing
data. Seven participants were identified as non-respondents
rendering an effective sample size of (N ¼ 219). Based on participant responses, minimal evidence of missing values was noted on
demographic and psychological variables (i.e., 0.00e2.70%).
Examination of missing data patterns demonstrated no evidence of
systematic non-response and consequently, missing data were
treated as random. For psychological variables, missing values were
replaced using a within-person mean substitution protocol
(Hawthorne & Elliot, 2005). Continuous variables demonstrated
minimal deviation from normality (Skewness ¼ 0.96 to 1.09;
2
Participant responses on psychological variables did not differ significantly
(p > 0.05) across questionnaire administration mode (i.e., paper-and-pencil or
internet based; Cohen’s d ¼ 0.44 to 0.18; Cohen, 1988).
536
D.E. Mack et al. / Psychology of Sport and Exercise 12 (2011) 533e539
Table 2
Correlation coefficients and confidence intervals between study variables.
1
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Competence
Autonomy
Relatedness
Balance
Vitality
Positive Affect
Negative Affect
2
3
4
5
e
.40 (.51 to .28)
.45 (.34 to .55)
.41 (.29 to .51)
.27 (.39 to .14)
e
.12 (.25 to .01)
.16 (.29 to .03)
.11 (.24 to .02)
6
7
e
.30 (.42 to .18)
e
e
.43
.42
.08
.48
.45
.25
(.32 to .53)
(.31 to .52)
(.21 to .05)
(.37 to .58)
(.34 to .55)
(.37 to .12)
e
.53 (.43 to .62)
.29 (.16 to .41)
.50 (.39 to .59)
.37 (.25 to .48)
.43 (.53 to .32)
e
.73 (.66 to .79)
.29 (.41 to .16)
Note. Two-tailed significance of correlations are as follows: r ¼ j0.14e0.17j are statistically significant at p 0.05; r j0.18j are statistically significant at p 0.01. One-tailed
significance of correlations are as follows: ¼ j0.12e0.15j are statistically significant at p 0.05; r j0.16j are statistically significant at p 0.01.
Kurtosis ¼ 0.40 to 2.90; Glass & Hopkins, 1996). Estimates of
internal consistency reliability (i.e., Cronbach’s a; Cronbach, 1951)
ranged from aBNS-A ¼ 0.54 to aSVS ¼ 0.88 in the present sample (see
Table 1 for specific a-values).3
Overall, participants reported that their basic psychological
needs were relatively satisfied (i.e., above mid-point levels per
Likert response scale) with the fulfillment of the psychological need
for relatedness in the context of volleyball most strongly endorsed
(see Table 1). Participants generally felt vital and reported positive
affect when engaged in volleyball; whereas, negative affect was
minimally endorsed (see Table 1).
Bivariate correlations and hierarchical multiple regressions
Bivariate correlations and 95% confidence intervals between
study variables are presented in Table 2. Greater fulfillment of each
basic psychological need in volleyball contexts was associated with
heightened levels of vitality and positive affect (r12 ¼ 0.37e0.50)
and lower negative affect (r12 ¼ 0.25 to 0.43). Balanced need
satisfaction scores showed a weak negative pattern of relationships
with indices of well-being (r12 ¼ 0.11 to 0.16).
A series of HMRAs were conducted with markers well-being
serving as the criterion variables and ‘additive’ (Model 1) and
‘balanced’ need fulfillment (Model 2) entered as the predictor
variables. Consideration of outliers (i.e., z-scores > j4.0j SDs from
the mean) led to the deletion of two cases. Independent variables
were not highly correlated (i.e., r12 < 0.80) and variance inflation
factors (values ranged from 1.29 to 2.64) were not suggestive of
concerns specific to singularity or multicollinearity (Kutner,
Nachtsheim, & Neter, 2004). No evidence of heteroscedasity was
revealed through visual inspection of residual scatter plots
(Tabachnick & Fidell, 2001). Independence of errors were assessed
with DurbineWatson’s statistic and ranged from 1.71 to 1.97 in this
sample.
Interpretation of results of the HMRAs (see Tables 3e5) identified several interesting patterns in the data. First, when considering
the ‘additive model’, the fulfillment of psychological needs predicted variance in well-being (Radj2 ranged from 0.20 to 0.35).
However, different individual psychological needs served as
statistically significant predictors depending on criterion variable.
Second, when considering the contributions of balanced psychological need satisfaction, a small amount of additional variance in
subjective vitality (DRadj2 ¼ 0.02) and positive affect (DRadj2 ¼ 0.01)
beyond the contributions attributable to each individual psychological need was noted. With consideration of negative affect as the
criterion variable, the predicted variance decreased slightly from
3
Given that previous studies of balanced psychological need satisfaction have
not reported estimates of internal consistency reliability (e.g., Sheldon & Niemiec,
2006), no attempt to estimate the reliability of the ‘balanced’ need satisfaction
composite was undertaken in this study.
Model 1 to Model 2 (DRadj2 ¼ 0.01). Finally, Model 1 of each
regression equation demonstrated medium to large effect sizes
(f2 ¼ 0.27e0.56; Cohen, 1988). In Model 2, minimal additional
practical significance was exhibited for each positive psychological
well-being index (Df2 ¼ 0.00e0.03).
Discussion
The aim of this investigation was to examine the fulfillment of
basic psychological needs as a mechanism to promote well-being in
a sample of collegiate volleyball players. Proponents of BPNT (Deci
& Ryan, 2002) contend that the fulfillment of each basic psychological need is inextricably linked, in a direct and positive manner
to psychological well-being (i.e., the ‘additive’ model; Sheldon &
Niemiec, 2006). Although researchers have examined this tenet
across sport contexts (e.g., Amorose et al., 2009; Reinboth & Duda,
2006), the current investigation aimed to extrapolate upon
previous empirical work through (a) testing the heuristic contributions of ‘balanced’ need fulfillment on well-being, (b) the inclusion of varied markers of well-being, and (c) considering the
importance of examining well-being at a contextual level. Results
demonstrated that the fulfillment of the basic psychological needs
was associated with greater well-being outcomes in volleyball
contexts with balanced need satisfaction demonstrating (at best)
minimal association and predictive power.
Deci and Ryan (2002) assert that the fulfillment of the psychological needs for competence, autonomy, and relatedness represent
necessary conditions for the promotion of well-being. Results from
the present investigation, in combination with other sport-based
BPNT research (e.g., Amorose et al., 2009; Reinboth et al., 2004),
Table 3
Hierarchical multiple regression analysis predicting subjective vitality from
psychological need satisfaction.
Variable
DRadj2
Subjective vitality
Model 1 (F(3, 213) ¼ 40.36,
Competence 0.35
Autonomy
Relatedness
B
p
Df 2
95% CI
p ¼ 0.00; Radj2 ¼ 0.35)
0.29 0.00 0.56 0.19 to 0.47
0.25 0.00
0.16 to 0.50
0.21 0.00
0.08 to 0.35
Model 2 (F (4, 212) ¼ 32.79, p ¼ 0.00; Radj2 ¼ 0.37)
Competence 0.02
0.28 0.00 0.03 0.18 to 0.46
Autonomy
0.40 0.00
0.30 to 0.74
Relatedness
0.06 0.51
0.12 to 0.24
Balance
0.20 0.01
0.23 to 0.03
ry,x1(x2)
rs
0.05
0.05
0.03
0.81
0.84
0.76
0.05
0.06
0.02
0.01
0.79
0.83
0.74
0.20
Note. N ¼ 217; Radj2 ¼ adjusted R-squared value from each regression model;
b ¼ standardized beta coefficients; p ¼ probability value; F ¼ F statistic;
Df 2 ¼ change in effect size; CI ¼ confidence intervals; ry,x1(x2) ¼ estimate of unique
variance per predictor variable in the regression models where values represent the
square of the part-correlation coefficients for each predictor (Hair, Black, Babin,
Anderson, & Tatha, 2006); rs ¼ structure coefficients for each predictor variable
included in the regression models estimated with the following formula: r/R (where
r is the bivariate correlation and R is the multiple regression coefficient per model).
D.E. Mack et al. / Psychology of Sport and Exercise 12 (2011) 533e539
Table 4
Hierarchical multiple regression analyses predicting positive affect from psychological need satisfaction.
DRadj2
rs
p ¼ 0.00; Radj2 ¼ 0.28)
0.32 0.00 0.39 0.13e0.31
0.12 0.09
0.01e0.20
0.22 0.00
0.05e0.22
0.06
0.01
0.04
0.85
0.70
0.78
Model 2 (F (4, 212) ¼ 22.92, p ¼ 0.00; Radj2 ¼ 0.29)
Competence 0.01
0.31 0.00 0.02 0.13e0.30
Autonomy
0.23 0.01
0.04e0.32
Relatedness
0.10 0.28
0.05e0.18
Balance
0.16 0.06
0.13e0.00
0.06
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.83
0.69
0.76
0.20
Positive affect
Model 1 (F(3, 213) ¼ 28.95,
Competence 0.28
Autonomy
Relatedness
B
p
Df 2
ry,x1(x2)
Variable
95% CI
Note. N ¼ 217; Radj2 ¼ adjusted R-squared value from each regression model;
b ¼ standardized beta coefficients; p ¼ probability value; F ¼ F statistic;
Df 2 ¼ change in effect size; CI ¼ confidence intervals; ry,x1(x2) ¼ estimate of unique
variance per predictor variable in the regression models where values represent the
square of the part-correlation coefficients for each predictor (Hair et al., 2006);
rs ¼ structure coefficients for each predictor variable included in the regression
models estimated with the following formula: r/R (where r is the bivariate correlation and R is the multiple regression coefficient per model).
may appear in opposition to these assumptions that embrace the
‘additive’ model in relation to well-being as posited by Deci and
Ryan (2002). However, such conclusions may be somewhat
premature. Interpretation of beta weights alone from the regression analyses suggest that only subjective vitality was predicted by
fulfillment of all three basic psychological needs central to BPNT.
When considering hedonic markers of well-being, variance in
positive affect was accounted for by the need for competence and
relatedness. Courville and Thompson (2001) cogently argue that
both beta weights and structure coefficients be interpreted as
“.they provide us with a more insightful stereoscopic view of
dynamics within our data” (p. 245). Consideration of the structure
coefficients in the present investigation document the importance
of all three psychological needs, including perceived autonomy, on
well-being.
Embedding study findings within the broader BPNT literature
also warrants consideration. The present findings support Ryan and
Frederick’s (1997) assertion for the role of each psychological need
to the promotion of feeling vital (i.e., eudaimonic well-being).
Further, it has been suggested (e.g., Ryan & Deci, 2001;
Waterman, 1993), that the fulfillment of specific individual
psychological needs may lead to hedonic well-being but represent
Table 5
Hierarchical multiple regression analyses predicting negative affect from psychological need satisfaction.
Variable
DRadj2
B
p
Df 2
95% CI
ry,x1(x2)
rs
Negative affect
Model 1 (F(3, 213) ¼ 18.45, p ¼ 0.00; Radj2 ¼ 0.20)
Competence
0.20 0.08 0.24 0.27 0.17 to 0.04
Autonomy
0.38 0.00
0.46 to 0.20
Relatedness
0.05 0.48
0.14 to 0.07
0.01
0.09
0.00
0.57
0.98
0.62
Model 2 (F (4, 212) ¼ 13.95, p ¼ 0.00; Radj2 ¼ 0.19)
Competence 0.01 0.09 0.22 0.00 0.17
Autonomy
0.33 0.00
0.46
Relatedness
0.10 0.31
0.21
Balance
0.07 0.45
0.11
0.001
0.04
0.00
0.00
0.57
0.98
0.62
0.25
to
to
to
to
0.04
0.12
0.07
0.05
Note. N ¼ 217; Radj2 ¼ adjusted R-squared value from each regression model;
b ¼ standardized beta coefficients; p ¼ probability value; F ¼ F statistic;
Df 2 ¼ change in effect size; CI ¼ confidence intervals; ry,x1(x2) ¼ estimate of unique
variance per predictor variable in the regression models where values represent the
square of the part-correlation coefficients for each predictor (Hair et al., 2006);
rs ¼ structure coefficients for each predictor variable included in the regression
models estimated with the following formula: r/R (where r is the bivariate correlation and R is the multiple regression coefficient per model).
537
insufficient conditions for the promotion of eudaimonic well-being.
Results of the present investigation in tandem with Reinboth et al.
(2004) suggests that the fulfillment of the need for autonomy
(a central construct in the SDT framework) may be a necessary
condition for the promotion of eudaimonic well-being.
Variance in the hedonic well-being index of negative affect was
accounted for by lower levels of the need for autonomy within the
context of volleyball. Previous research (Reinboth & Duda, 2006;
Reinboth et al., 2004) has demonstrated mixed support for the
role of psychological need satisfaction on physical ill-being
(as opposed to psychological well-being). For example, inquiry
may extend to arguments advanced (e.g., Lightheart et al., 2010;
Sheldon & Bettencourt, 2002) suggestive that specific psychological needs may be more influential toward maximizing well-being,
than the absence of negative well-being. It is possible that in the
context of sport, autonomy serves as a buffering agent in relation to
the harmful effects associated with ill-being such as experiencing
negative affect whereas connections with others and feelings of
competence serve only to promote well-being. Research may
further want to extrapolate on the above to examine Deci and
Ryan’s (2000) contentions that individual basic psychological
needs may play a more or less proximal role with respect to
psychological well-being promotion and maintenance in different
settings depending on functional significance of the context.
Based strictly on the magnitude of observed effect sizes, results
stemming from this investigation offer minimal support for the role
of ‘balanced’ need fulfillment when considered alongside the
contributions of the ‘additive’ model in predicting well-being.
Findings for subjective vitality and positive affect in the present
investigation replicate those demonstrated in previous sport-based
literature (Perreault et al., 2007) and hedonic well-being in
university students (Sheldon & Niemiec, 2006) while contrasting
(Anderson-Butcher & Amorose, 2008; Lightheart et al., 2010) in
athletes. However, those reporting higher levels of subjective
vitality and positive affect demonstrated less balanced (i.e., more
variability) psychological need fulfillment which is in contrast with
Sheldon and Niemiec’s (2006) findings. Less variability (i.e., more
‘balance’) in psychological need satisfaction scores was not associated with negative affect. Varied explanations may be advanced
to explain these findings. First, concerns raised over the use of
multiple indicators of the same concept (i.e., psychological need
satisfaction) in multiple regression analyses (Pedhazur & PedhazurSchmelkin, 1991) prove troubling in the analyses. Second, potential
concerns associated with the manner in which balanced psychological need satisfaction scores were calculated (Perreault et al.,
2007; Sheldon & Niemiec, 2006) may be raised which render the
calculation of reliability challenging to appraise using conventional
estimates (e.g., Cronbach’s alpha). Collectively, while study results
suggest that the conceptualization of balanced need fulfillment
reflects a theoretically sound extension of BPNT (Deci & Ryan,
2002), departing from the ‘additive’ model of basic psychological
need fulfillment, in favor only of a ‘balanced’ model may be
premature.
While the results of this investigation hold theoretical and
practical merit, a number of limitations require acknowledgement
to advance our understanding of psychological need fulfillment and
well-being in sport contexts. First, data collection procedures
included non-probability based sampling which limits inferences
that can be drawn from statistical tests and claims of external
validity. Second, the non-experimental cross-sectional design
prohibits the delineation of any direct and causal claims encompassing the need fulfillment-well-being relationship. Third, while
estimates of internal consistency should be based on study characteristics (such as sample heterogeneity and instrumentation) as
opposed to pre-fabricated cut-points (Lance, Butts, & Michels,
538
D.E. Mack et al. / Psychology of Sport and Exercise 12 (2011) 533e539
2006), potential concerns with the reliability of test scores associated with perceptions of autonomy fulfillment (i.e., Cronbach
aA ¼ 0.54; Cronbach, 1951) should be noted. As lower estimates of
reliability may compromise validity support or the ability of test
scores to yield meaningful effects (e.g., attenuate effect sizes;
Thompson, 2002) caution in interpretation of conclusions specific
to the need for autonomy is justified. Finally, adapted measures
were employed to assess the fulfillment of the basic psychological
needs for competence, autonomy, and relatedness in the context of
volleyball. While such adaptations are not uncommon in sportbased BPNT literature (e.g., Reinboth & Duda, 2006; Reinboth et al.,
2004), the extent to which the items are fully representative and
relevant to the targeted construct remains undetermined (Streiner
& Norman, 2008).
In sum, the present investigation generally afforded support for
the study’s hypotheses and BPNT tenets (Deci & Ryan, 2002). Basic
psychological need fulfillment in the context of volleyball was
associated with, and predictive of, two forms of well-being.
Balanced need satisfaction accounted for minimal additional variance beyond the contributions of each independent need, with the
exception of negative affect. The present investigation did little to
clarify the equivocal evidence specific to the meaningfulness of
balanced need fulfillment beyond individual contributions which is
suggestive of additional thoughtful empirical investigation and
theoretical considerations. Through the employment of various
strategies such as coach interpersonal style, the fulfillment of basic
psychological needs may facilitate psychological well-being in
sport participants.
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