Dipartimento di Politiche Pubbliche e Scelte Collettive – POLIS Department of Public Policy and Public Choice – POLIS Working paper N. 39 December 2003 Competition vs. Cooperation. An Experimental Inquiry. Marie-Edith Bissey, Claudia Canegallo, Guido Ortona and Francesco Scacciati UNIVERSITA’ DEL PIEMONTE ORIENTALE “Amedeo Avogadro” ALESSANDRIA 1 Competition vs. Cooperation. An Experimental Inquiry. Marie Edith Bissey*, Claudia Canegallo*, Guido Ortona*§ and Francesco Scacciati** Abstract. It is argued that the propensity to cooperate may be negatively affected by competition. Experimental evidence support this hypothesis. In a set of three experiments in which different degrees of competition characterize the markets, participants reduce their contributions to a public project as the degree of competition increases, from the benchmark case – no competition on the private market – up to the perfect competition case. *Department of Public Choice, POLIS, Università del Piemonte Orientale, Via Cavour 84, Alessandria 15100, Italy ** Department of Economics “Cognetti de Martiis”, Università di Torino, Via Po 53, Torino 10124, Italy § Corresponding author, guido.ortona@sp.unipmn.it 2 1. Introduction There is experimental evidence that human beings usually cooperate more than is prescribed by the maximization of purely selfish utility functions1. To the glory of experimental economics, this result produced a real and significant shift in mainstream economics: the idea that fairness and/or altruistic concerns may be present in “normal” preferences is no more heretical, despite the indeterminacy that it introduces2. Altruism is maintained also if the payoff is high3 and/or learning is allowed4; hence, many scholars agree that there is something in the human nature that drives subjects towards cooperation5. The very notion of Human Nature is ill-defined and intriguing; yet a theory that explains at this level the existence of a propensity to cooperate exists and is quite consolidated. This theory is not (yet) formalized to the point requested by economics (or economists) and, mostly, is not fully economic in its essence, hence it is probably safer to refer to it as to a conjecture. Our paper is downstream with respect to it: should the conjecture prove wrong, our paper would admittedly lose its validity. We proceed with a very rough sketch of the theory. It is made of three components. The first is fully economic: cooperative equilibria in repeated prisoners’ dilemmas are possible. We refer not only to the so-called “gang of four” approach6, but mostly to the approach of the theory of conventions: there is a class of cooperative strategies that not only are Nash equilibria, but also satisfy the more demanding requirement of non-invadibility7. No need to deal further with these results, as they are well-known. The second component of the theory, also well-known and mid-way between economics and cognitive science, is the assumption that by necessity subjects resort to heuristics based on analogy in choosing and, more broadly, in reasoning. We will not quote references on this topic, but one: Henrich et al. (2001) argue, on an impressive cross-cultural comparative basis, that “the degree of cooperation, sharing, and punishment exhibited by experimental subjects closely corresponds to templates for these behaviors in the subjects’ daily life; and the substantial variability in experimental behaviors across groups is an expression of the large between-group differences in the structures of social interaction and modes of livelihood”. Actually, their experiments show that selfutility concerns meet great difficulties in displacing "default" behaviors. With reference to this 1 This conclusion is supported by several families of experiments: ultimatum games (introduced by Guth et al., 1982), gift-exchange games (Fehr et al., 1993), Trust games (Berg et al., 1995), and Public goods games (a survey is Ledyard, 1995). 2 For a discussion, see Fehr and Schmidt, 2000. 3 An interesting real-world experiment is in Pommerehne et al., 1994. 4 See for instance Davis and Holt, 1993, ch. 6. Fehr and Gächter (2000) observe that the cooperation is strongly enhanced if participants are allowed to punish (at a cost) the free-riders. This is important for our discussion, as we will see in a moment. 5 Probably, the first important study that draws this conclusion from experimental evidence is Caporael et al., 1989. 6 See Kreps et al., 1982. 7 See f.i. Sugden, 1986; Maynard Smith, 1982. 3 point, our conjecture – coherent both with the assumption and the quotation – is consequently that subjects, in experimental settings, adopt “usual” behaviors; The third component is sociobiological. The story goes this way: (a) for some 99% of our history as a species we were gatherers-hunters; (b) gatherer-hunter societies are a very good environment to nurture cooperative conventions, both for their efficiency in maximizing individual utility and for the existence of strong family (or genetic) links; (c) hence, it is reasonable to conjecture (again!) that we may have developed an instinct towards cooperation, or at least (to be less demanding) a genetic-based propensity to learn to cooperate. Again, we deem it superfluous to give quotations on this argument, but for some recent evidence that strongly supports it on a biological basis. Rilling et al. (2002) found that in an iterated prisoners’ dilemma game “mutual cooperation was associated with consistent activation in brain areas that have been linked with reward processing” (p.395). On the same line, Fehr and Gächter found that "free riding causes strong negative emotions among cooperators” (1999, quotation from the abstract). Brosnan and De Waal (2003) showed that also “Monkeys reject unequal pay”, as the title of their paper reads. Boyd et al. (2003) proved that the punishment of free-riders may evolve quite easily as an evolutionary stable strategy; this is important, because all the cooperative conventions that have been analyzed require this feature (see f.i. Axelrod, 1986), at least to our knowledge. Less recently, psychologists discovered that friendship (a feature that by definition implies a greater propensity to cooperate) has a biological correlate (see f.i. Rushton, 1989). To sum up: we have an imprinted tendency to cooperate (third element) that drives our normal behavior (second) and that has not been selected away because (first) it may correspond to an equilibrium strategy. 4 2. Cooperation and competition If things are so, why pre-experimental economics was so prone to admit selfishness (but for idiosyncratic preferences) as the absolutely dominant determinant of human behavior? According to Fehr and Schmidt (2000) – and we agree – this was due to an unjustified generalization to the whole set of human choices of the ones assumed in a competitive market environment. Actually, there are strong reasons why a (purely) competitive market should produce a (perfectly) selfish behavior. First, in equilibrium a non-maximizing subject will give away her/his "normal" profit, and hence leave the market. In other words, a selfish subject would not miss a gain - s/he would meet a loss, possibly a total loss, from the reference point. And experimental evidence shows beyond any doubt the losses are much more aversed than missed gain8. Second, the atomistic dimension of the subjects makes them irresponsible: it makes little sense to incur costs to be “fair”, if my fairness has no discernible results. Two basic theoretical features correspond to this characteristic: the assumption that markets are parametrical and not strategic in mainstream economics, and the notion of feticism in Marxian economics (subjects are induced to ignore the human beings that hide beyond prices, wages, etc). Marxian economics actually provides a conceptual environment quite suitable for our discussion: selfishness is the attitudinal superstructure that best corresponds to an economy structured as a set of perfectly competitive markets. Hence, if we admit that in “real life” not all social (and not even all economic) environments correspond to perfectly competitive markets, we may expect a low level of cooperation if the environment is strongly competitive and a high level if it is not9. In this paper, we report experimental evidence of the existence of a negative correlation between the propensity to cooperate and the degree of competition. 8 9 The literature is enormous. Among the basic references see f.i. Kahneman and Tversky (1979) and Knetsch and Sinden (1987). Obviously, the measure of “low” and “high” is difficult to fix; arguably it is affected by a lot of contour conditions. 5 3. The experiment Agents were endowed with a given sum (18 Euros), to be totally spent in two different projects (A and B). Project A is a private good that remunerates (if need be, ex-aequo) only those who invest the highest amount of money in the project. Project B is a public good that remunerates all participants equally, irrespective of individual contributions10. Everybody was free to split the 18 Euros among the two projects in the way believed to be the best. Even though the public good was never produced when a threshold amount was fixed, the results show that cooperation significantly diminishes as competition increases. 3.1. The method The experiment was run five times, with different groups of 24 undergraduate students, and different levels of competition and hence of risk. Four of the five experiments were run in the Laboratory of Experimental and Simulative Economics of The Università del Piemonte Orientale in Alessandria, with students from different classes, years and Faculties. One experiment (that of table 1) was run in a computer room of the Università di Torino, with students coming from the same economics class, who had recently studied the prisoners’ dilemma in an International Economics course. 3.1.1 The more competitive environment In the more competitive environment, those who did not win in the private good project lost all the money invested in that project, whereas the winner (winners, if ex-aequo) – i.e. the one(s) that put the greatest sum in project A – got all the money collected in that project multiplied by 1.2. This experiment was run twice, with different rules regarding project B. In the first experiment the public good was produced only if a threshold amount G of money (1/4 of the total distributed amount; i.e. 108 out of 432 Euros) was overall invested in the project. In this case, the sum invested in the public good was multiplied by 1.6 and equally divided among all participants. If G was not reached, all the money invested in project B was lost. In the second experiment, G is equal to zero and therefore the public good is always produced, rewarding the participants as in the first experiment. 6 3.1.2 The less competitive environment In the less competitive environment, those who did not win in the private good (project A) got back the money invested in that project, whereas the winner(s) received the money invested plus a 20% surplus of all the money collected in the project. Project B works as in the first experiment, with the same G (108 Euros) to be reached in order to produce the public good and remunerate all participants. 3.1.3 A free-from-competition environment In the last two experiments we simulated a free-from-competition environment, to be used as a benchmark for the first three experiments. In project A each participant received exactly what (s)he invested in that project, multiplied by 1.2: i.e, everybody would win. Project B was again as in the first experiment, with the same G to be reached to produce the public good. This experiment was run twice, once in Torino, and once in Alessandria, in order to double-check the benchmark results. 3.1.4 Additional remarks This experimental structure allows the following patterns: a) In the more competitive environment, not winning in the private good means losing all the money invested (i.e., “in real life”, exit from the market). Investing in the private good, on the other hand, is more profitable for the winner (winners, if ex-aequo), because the jack-pot is formed with all the money invested in the project by all participants, multiplied by 1.2. b) In the less competitive environment, not winning is “just” a missed gain. Losers, in fact, receive the money they invested in project A back, while the winner gets his money back, plus the surplus of the project (i.e. 20% of all the money collected in the project). c) In the benchmark environment competition disappears from project A, but the public good still needs large participation to be reached. No matter how much one invests in the private good, the money is never lost, and it yields a fixed 20%. d) A positive value of G makes cooperation (i.e. investing in the public good) more risky. This is especially true in the more competitive environment, where it is possible for some participants to end up with zero gain. Investing in the public good, in fact, increases the probability of being a loser in the private competition: this, as we have seen, in the more competitive environment means losing all the money invested in the private good. Moreover, if the public good is not produced, the participants will lose the money invested in project B. In the less competitive environment, investing in the public good again diminishes the probability of winning in the private 10 Note that B is not a pure public good, as there is some rivalry in the consumption of it. See below. 7 good, but being a loser means just missing a surplus, because all participants will, nonetheless, get the money invested in project A back. All the experiments were made of 8 repetitions, to allow for learning and interaction. Participants knew that the only repetition to be paid for real was the last one, but they did not know whether the repetition under play was the last until the end of it. Hence every repetition had a significant probability of being played for real(see appendix B for details). Obviously, the usual requirements of anonymity, equality of framing, etc. were rigorously observed. 3.2. The experimental model Given: N= number of participants e = individual endowment, e = yi + gi yi = private good investment of player “i”, 0≤yi≤ e gi = public good investment of player “i”, 0≤ gi≤ e Mp = private sector jackpot λ = return on private investment, λ≥1 α = global return on public investment, α>λ α/N= individual return on public investment11, α/N<λ Nv = number of winners in the private sector If y1= y2… = ym > yj, jm+1N, then Nv = m G = overall collection in the public sector: G = (∑i=1N gi) β =fraction of global endowment necessary to produce the public good, 0≤β<1 MG =public sector jackpot, if G≥β(eN), MG=αG pi = private pay-off of player “i” Pi = public pay-off of player “i” πi =total pay-off of player “i”, πi = pi + Pi 11 This condition is required to make free-riding individually preferable. 8 The pay-off equation for the public good is: If G≥β(eN), the public good is produced, Pi = MG/N = α (∑i=1N gi)/N. If G<β(eN), the public good is not produced, Pi = 0. For the private good, we have two slightly different payoff equations, according to the level of competition simulated. In the more competitive environment, winners take all and losers take nothing: Mp = λ (∑i=1N yi) If yi > yj, then player “i” is a winner, and his private pay-off is given by: pi = Mp/Nv = λ (∑i=1N yi)/Nv. If yi < yj, then player “i” is a loser, and his private pay-off is: pi = 0. In the less competitive environment, winners get their investment plus the 20% surplus of all the money invested in the project, while losers only get their investment back: Mp =(λ-1) (∑i=1N yi) If yi > yj, then player “i” is a winner, and his private pay-off is given by: pi = yi + Mp/Nv = yi + (λ-1) (∑i=1N yi)/Nv. If yi < yj, then player “i” is a loser, and his private pay-off is: pi = yi. The values of parameters λ, α and β are λ=1.2, α=1.6 and β=0.25 (or β=0 when there is no threshold amount and therefore the public good is always produced, regardless of the amount of money collected in the project). 3.3. Results The results show that cooperation significantly diminishes as competition increases. a) The public good was never produced in presence of competition, whereas it was produced twice (see table 1) and three times (see table 2) in the benchmark environment, where there was no competition on the private good. 9 b) Both the overall sum invested in the public good and the number of public investors are significantly higher when there is no competition on the private good (compare figures shown in tables 1 and 2 to the ones presented in tables 3 and 4). c) Comparing table 3 and table 4, we see that the sum collected in project B is significantly lower when competition is high (with a positive G). In the more competitive environment (table 4) all agents converge to a selfish strategy two rounds before the end of the game, whereas in the less competitive environment (see table 3) there is never a complete convergence to pure selfishness. Moreover, the number of participants investing in the public good is 2.56 times higher in the less than in the more competitive environment, and the amount of money invested is 1.73 times as much. d) Comparing tables 2 (or 1), 3 and 4, we see that the contribution to the public good decreases as competition increases. See also figures 1 and 2. e) In the experiment presented in table 5 – where there is high competition with no threshold amount to produce the public good (i.e. G = 0) – the average number of participants investing in the public good is not significantly different from the more competitive environment, where G=108 (while the average invested sum is). This means that the risk in investing in project B has only a minor effect, if any, on promoting cooperation, if the risk of a sub-optimal behavior with reference to the private good is high. To our opinion, this result deserves a deeper inquiry. f) Finally, an ancillary result: the figures of benchmark sessions are significantly different, albeit both are in line with previous research. Alessandria and Torino are both in Piedmont, with no relevant ethnic, cultural and/or economic differences12. This suggests that local, "cultural" factors, and/or the exposure to the theory, may affect the behavior (or the preferences) more than is often assumed by experimentalists. 12 The only difference is demographic: the population of Torino is approximately 890,000, that of Alessandria one tenth of that. 10 4. Conclusions and suggestions for further research An increasing amount of experimental research shows that the framing of choices as market choices reduces the “regard for other people's well-being” (Carpenter, 2002, p.16)13. We analyzed a specific component of the market – i.e. competition – and our experiments support the hypothesis that in a non-competitive environment the propensity to cooperate is present, and that this propensity is gradually displaced as the degree of competition grows. The experimental evidence we obtained confirms core economics in what concerns our preferences in a competitive environment; it goes against its generalization to the human nature, however defined. However, this is only the start of the story. Competition has a number of constituent features: do they determine the decrease or the disappearance of propensity to cooperate all together, or only some of them contribute? Or, more plausibly, are some of them more relevant in doing so? There are five aspects of competition that may have a specific role in reducing the propensity to cooperate. We may label them payoff, loss, learning, risk and ethics. a) The payoffs are significant; b) Non-optimizers are excluded from the market; hence they (typically) face a loss from their status quo and not only a missed gain; c) Interactions are repeated, hence learning is possible; d) The risk increases (presumably) with the degree of competition; e) The selfish behavior promoted by competition may be constrained and restrained by moral concerns14. A lot of experiments already assessed the role of payoff and of learning. Broadly speaking, the evidence shows that payoff is quite ineffective in reducing cooperation, whereas learning is effective15. But payoff and learning are not unique to competitive economies: actually, they are present in every real-world economic environment, except very weird ones. Also, it may be of interest to test whether risk has the same effect if it is due to competition or to something else; but risk too is not specific to the competitive environment. 13 See also Loewenstein et al., 1989, Hoffman et al., 1994. This last feature requires some additional explanation. A "pure" competitor is squeezed on her/his minimum profit; s/he has no room to sacrifice some of her/his utility to help someone else, i.e. to be altruistic. Hence the probability of being judged negatively is much higher for her/him than for (for instance) a rentier, whose more-than-normal gains may be allocated in a much more liberal way. That the Scrooges of capitalism killed the Galahads of the good old times is a popular topic. Unfortunately, to pursue further this argument is clearly beyond the scope of this paper. 15 Actually, it is not yet clear whether learning reduces cooperation because the subjects gain a better knowledge of the case or because they refuse to be exploited by free riders. The relevance of punishment, as well as the persistence of cooperation across repetitions in games different from public goods games, suggest that the second explanation may be more relevant. Further evidence should help. For a brief discussion see Fehr and Schmidt, 2000, p.8. 14 11 Hence, we suggest that the next step in the assessment of the role of competition in reducing cooperation is the evaluation of the specific role of loss and ethics. Further experiments will be devoted to this. 12 Appendix A – Results Tab. 1 Benchmark environment, Torino, G=108 period Public contribution 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Number of public contributors 127 111 88 102 59 32 40 4 563 70.375 Total Average 20 19 19 16 14 10 5 2 105 13.125 Tab. 2 Benchmark environment, Alessandria, G=108 Period Public contribution 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Total Average Number of public contributors 185 164 122 93 72 59 34 31 760 95 23 23 22 21 16 15 12 9 141 17.625 Tab. 3 Less competitive environment, G=108 period Public contribution 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Total Average Number of public contributors 38 37 35 29 25 31 12 25 232 29 9 6 7 4 4 4 3 4 41 5.125 13 Tab. 4 More competitive environment, G=108 period Public contribution 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Number of public contributors 20 28 42 20 12 12 0 0 134 16.750 Total Average 5 4 3 2 1 1 0 0 16 2 Tab. 5 More competitive environment, G=0 period 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Total Average Public contribution Number of public contributors 67 5 20 2 24 4 34 3 0 0 0 0 18 1 36 2 199 17 24.875 2.125 Fig. 1 Average public contribution in the three relevant environments Average public contribution 100 80 60 40 20 0 Average public contribution Benchmark Alessandria Less competitive environment Competitive environment G=108 95 29 16,75 14 Fig. 2 Average number of contributors in the three relevant environments Average number of contributors 20 15 10 5 0 Average number of contributors Benchmark Alessandria Less competitive environment Competitive environment G=108 17,625 5,125 2 Fig. 3 Overall public contribution Overall public contribution 200 Competitive, G=108 Euro 150 Non competitive, G=108 100 Competitive, G=0 50 Benchmark Alessandria, G=108 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Period 15 Benchmark Turin, G=108 Fig. 4 Overall private contribution Overall private contribution 450 Competitive, G=108 Euro 400 350 Non competitive, G=108 300 Competitive, G=0 250 Benchmark Alessandria, G=108 200 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Benchmark Turin, G=108 Period Values of T for mean differences (All values are significant at 99%, but 0.17 (not significant at any reasonable level) and 2.06 (significant at 95%). Contributors to project B Benchmark, A Benchmark, T LCE CE, G=108 Benchmark, T 3.52 LCE 12.54 7.36 CE, G=108 15.87 10.33 4.33 CE, G=0 15.80 10.25 4.19 0.17 LCE 22.21 15.73 CE, G=108 25.28 19.37 7.05 CE, G=0 21.54 15.45 2.06 3.71 Total sum invested in project B Benchmark, A Benchmark, T LCE CE, G=108 Benchmark, T 6.71 16 Appendix B – Instructions16 Instructions for the more competitive environment 117. Welcome to the experiment, and thank you for participating. You are only required to follow the instructions that will appear on your screen. They will also be distributed on paper, and you are allowed to consult them whenever you like. There are no difficulties, nor tricky questions. Your answers will be absolutely anonymous. It will not be possible to the experimenters to match the answers with the person that provided them. During the experiment you will know other participants’ choices, but these too will be absolutely anonymous. For the success of the experiment, it is necessary that you do not communicate with each other18. 2. Open the envelope you have on your desk. It contains 18 Euros. This money is yours. However, you are requested to use it as will be explained in the following screens.During the experiment you will have the opportunity to increase this sum, but also to lose it, partly or totally, as a result of your choices. At the end of the experiment, you either will be given an additional sum resulting from your further earnings, or you will be asked to refund your loss. 3. Before proceeding with the experiment, you will be asked to go through some practice sessions, to better understand all the implications of the choices you will make during the “real” experiment. In the practice sessions payments will be fictitious. The real sessions, that will follow the practice ones, will provide real payments, as will be explained shortly. 4. In each of the sessions, both practice and real, you will be asked to use the whole sum you have been given. This sum must be allocated – in whole Euros – between two different projects (A and B), according to your free choice. In other words you may chose to allocate from zero to eighteen Euros in each of the two projects, for a total of eighteen Euros. You are asked to use all your 18 Euros in each of the practice sessions and in each of the real sessions. This means that the game begins all over again in each session and that the payoffs are not influenced by the results of the previous ones. However, only one of the real sessions will yield real payments, as will be explained further on. The overall sum due to each participant will be calculated as the sum of what will be obtained from the two projects. 5. Here is the description of the two projects: PROJECT A. The overall sum allocated in this project by all participants will be increased by 20%, and the amount (jackpot) thus obtained will be entirely assigned to the participant who has allocated the highest sum in this project. All other participants will lose all the money they allocated in this project. If more than one participant will allocate the highest sum ex-aequo, the jackpot will be equally divided among them. PROJECT B. The overall sum allocated in this project by all participants will be increased by 60% to form the jackpot, but only if the total sum allocated is at least equal to 108 euros, which corresponds to 1/4 of the money altogether distributed (432 Euros). 16 This is a translation; actual instructions were in Italian. We omit the after-the-job screens and the interactive screens. Numbers refer to screen displays. 18 Participants were sitting in separate box-places, not allowing involuntary communication. 17 17 If the amount of 108 euros will be reached, the jackpot (i. e. the total allocation in the project increased by 60%) will be divided in equal shares among all participants to the experiment, whether they contributed to this project or not, and independently from how much each of them will have contributed with. If, instead, the amount of 108 Euros will not be reached, the money allocated in this project will be lost for everyone. 6. Some practice sessions now follow, the same for everyone, so that you can better understand the rules of the experiment and test your strategies, confronting them with the results you achieve. We remind you that in these practice sessions payments are fictitious. In each session your choice will be matched with that of 23 virtual participants. In the practice sessions, in fact, the 23 choices you see on your screen are NOT those of the other participants around you, differently from what will happen in the “real” sessions, when each participant will produce one of the 24 choices that will, altogether, determine the project outcome. After each practice session the screen will tell you how much you have earned or lost, and obviously this will depend on the combination of your choice with the other 23 virtual choices. 7. We are now distributing on paper support the same instructions you have just read on your computer. You have e few minutes to go through them. We advise you to consult them during the experiment, whenever you may feel you need to19. Screen 8 to 15 display the practice sessions. 16. Thanks to the practice sessions, you should now have an idea of which are the possible outcomes of your choices. Now you have to chose for real. In each session you have to use your 18 Euros, with the same rules as in the practice sessions. Only one of the following sessions will provide real payments, but you will not be informed in advance whether the session you are about to play is that one. However, after each session the computer will tell you if the session just run was that the computer itself has drawn as the “one for real”. If this is the case, the experiment ends; if not, the experiment will continue with a new sessions, which again might be the “one for real”. The computer “decides” randomly whether to continue or not after each session. Thus, before starting a new session, you know that the ones already run were not for real, while the one starting has a high probability of being the “for real” one. 17. After the session that provides real payments the experiment will end, and you will be asked to go to the next room to receive your additional payment or to refund your loss. Participants will be called one at a time, through the number of the computer; therefore no one will know the results achieved by the other participants, nor other participants’ names. 18. Now the real sessions begin. (...) 19 Screens 8 to 15 implement the practice sessions. 18 Instructions for the less competitive environment. The instructions are exactly the same as for experiment 1, but for the first part of point 5, which reads PROJECT A. The overall sum allocated in this project by all participants will be increased by 20%, and the surplus thus obtained – the jackpot (i.e. the 20% of the whole sum allocated in this project) – will be entirely assigned to the participant who has allocated the highest sum in this project. If more than one participant will allocate the highest sum ex-aequo, the jackpot will be equally divided among them. In addition, the sum allocated in this project will be refunded to all participants. Instructions for free-from-competition environment. 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(1986), The Economics of Rights, Cooperation and Welfare, Basil Blackwell. 21 Working Papers The full text of the working papers is downloadable at http://polis.unipmn.it/ *Economics Series 2003 n.39ε 2003 n.38ε 2003 n.37* 2003 n. 36* 2003 n. 35* **Political Theory Series ε Al.Ex Series Marie Edith Bissey, Claudia Canegallo, Guido Ortona and Francesco Scacciati, Competition vs. cooperation. An experimental inquiry Marie-Edith Bissey, Mauro Carini, Guido Ortona, ALEX3: a simulation program to compare electoral systems Cinzia Di Novi, Regolazione dei prezzi o razionamento: l’efficacia dei due sistemi di allocazione nella fornitura di risorse scarse a coloro che ne hanno maggiore necessita’ Marilena Localtelli, Roberto Zanola, The Market for Picasso Prints: An Hybrid Model Approach Marcello Montefiori, Hotelling competition on quality in the health care market. 2003 n. 34* Michela Gobbi, A Viable Alternative: the Scandinavian Model of Democracy” “Social 2002 n. 33* Mario Ferrero, Radicalization as a reaction to failure: an economic model of islamic extremism 2002 n. 32ε Guido Ortona, Choosing the electoral system – why not simply the best one? 2002 n. 31** Silvano Belligni, Francesco Ingravalle, Guido Ortona, Pasquale Pasquino, Michel Senellart, Trasformazioni della politica. Contributi al seminario di Teoria politica 2002 n. 30* Franco Amisano, La corruzione amministrativa in una burocrazia di tipo concorrenziale: modelli di analisi economica. 2002 n. 29* Marcello Montefiori, Libertà di scelta e contratti prospettici: l’asimmetria informativa nel mercato delle cure sanitarie ospedaliere 2002 n. 28* Daniele Bondonio, Evaluating the Employment Impact of Business Incentive Programs in EU Disadvantaged Areas. A case from Northern Italy 2002 n. 27** Corrado Malandrino, Oltre il compromesso del Lussemburgo verso l’Europa federale. Walter Hallstein e la crisi della “sedia vuota”(1965-66) 2002 n. 26** Guido Franzinetti, Le Elezioni Galiziane al Reichsrat di Vienna, 1907-1911 2002 n. 25ε Marie-Edith Bissey and Guido Ortona, A simulative frame to study the integration of defectors in a cooperative setting 2001 n. 24* Ferruccio Ponzano, Efficiency wages and endogenous supervision technology 2001 n. 23* Alberto Cassone and Carla Marchese, Should the death tax die? And should it leave an inheritance? 2001 n. 22* Carla Marchese and Fabio Privileggi, Who participates in tax amnesties? Self-selection of risk-averse taxpayers 2001 n. 21* Claudia Canegallo, Una valutazione delle carriere dei giovani lavoratori atipici: la fedeltà aziendale premia? 2001 n. 20* Stefania Ottone, L'altruismo: atteggiamento irrazionale, strategia vincente o amore per il prossimo? 2001 n. 19* Stefania Ravazzi, La lettura contemporanea del cosiddetto dibattito fra Hobbes e Hume 2001 n. 18* Alberto Cassone e Carla Marchese, Einaudi e i servizi pubblici, ovvero come contrastare i monopolisti predoni e la burocrazia corrotta 2001 n. 17* Daniele Bondonio, Evaluating Decentralized Policies: How to Compare the Performance of Economic Development Programs across Different Regions or States. 2000 n. 16* Guido Ortona, On the Xenophobia of non-discriminated Ethnic Minorities 2000 n. 15* Marilena Locatelli-Biey and Roberto Zanola, The Market for Sculptures: An Adjacent Year Regression Index 2000 n. 14* Daniele Bondonio, Metodi per la valutazione degli aiuti alle imprse con specifico target territoriale 2000 n. 13* Roberto Zanola, Public goods versus publicly provided private goods in a two-class economy 2000 n. 12** Gabriella Silvestrini, Il concetto di «governo della legge» nella tradizione repubblicana. 2000 n. 11** Silvano Belligni, Magistrati e politici nella crisi italiana. Democrazia dei guardiani e neopopulismo 2000 n. 10* Rosella Levaggi and Roberto Zanola, The Flypaper Effect: Evidence from the Italian National Health System 1999 n. 9* Mario Ferrero, A model of the political enterprise 1999 n. 8* Claudia Canegallo, Funzionamento del mercato del lavoro in presenza di informazione asimmetrica 1999 n. 7** Silvano Belligni, Corruzione, malcostume amministrativo e strategie etiche. Il ruolo dei codici. 1999 n. 6* Carla Marchese and Fabio Privileggi, Taxpayers Attitudes Towaer Risk and Amnesty Partecipation: Economic Analysis and Evidence for the Italian Case. 1999 n. 5* Luigi Montrucchio and Fabio Privileggi, On Fragility of Bubbles in Equilibrium Asset Pricing Models of Lucas-Type 1999 n. 4** Guido Ortona, A weighted-voting electoral system that performs quite well. 1999 n. 3* Mario Poma, Benefici economici e ambientali dei diritti di inquinamento: il caso della riduzione dell’acido cromico dai reflui industriali. 1999 n. 2* Guido Ortona, Una politica di emergenza contro la disoccupazione semplice, efficace equasi efficiente. 1998 n. 1* Fabio Privileggi, Carla Marchese and Alberto Cassone, Risk Attitudes and the Shift of Liability from the Principal to the Agent Department of Public Policy and Public Choice “Polis” The Department develops and encourages research in fields such as: • theory of individual and collective choice; • economic approaches to political systems; • theory of public policy; • public policy analysis (with reference to environment, health care, work, family, culture, etc.); • experiments in economics and the social sciences; • quantitative methods applied to economics and the social sciences; • game theory; • studies on social attitudes and preferences; • political philosophy and political theory; • history of political thought. The Department has regular members and off-site collaborators from other private or public organizations. Instructions to Authors Please ensure that the final version of your manuscript conforms to the requirements listed below: The manuscript should be typewritten single-faced and double-spaced with wide margins. Include an abstract of no more than 100 words. Classify your article according to the Journal of Economic Literature classification system. Keep footnotes to a minimum and number them consecutively throughout the manuscript with superscript Arabic numerals. Acknowledgements and information on grants received can be given in a first footnote (indicated by an asterisk, not included in the consecutive numbering). Ensure that references to publications appearing in the text are given as follows: COASE (1992a; 1992b, ch. 4) has also criticized this bias.... and “...the market has an even more shadowy role than the firm” (COASE 1988, 7). List the complete references alphabetically as follows: Periodicals: KLEIN, B. (1980), “Transaction Cost Determinants of ‘Unfair’ Contractual Arrangements,” American Economic Review, 70(2), 356-362. KLEIN, B., R. G. CRAWFORD and A. A. ALCHIAN (1978), “Vertical Integration, Appropriable Rents, and the Competitive Contracting Process,” Journal of Law and Economics, 21(2), 297-326. Monographs: NELSON, R. R. and S. G. WINTER (1982), An Evolutionary Theory of Economic Change, 2nd ed., Harvard University Press: Cambridge, MA. Contributions to collective works: STIGLITZ, J. E. (1989), “Imperfect Information in the Product Market,” pp. 769-847, in R. SCHMALENSEE and R. D. WILLIG (eds.), Handbook of Industrial Organization, Vol. I, North Holland: Amsterdam-London-New York-Tokyo. Working papers: WILLIAMSON, O. E. (1993), “Redistribution and Efficiency: The Remediableness Standard,” Working paper, Center for the Study of Law and Society, University of California, Berkeley.
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