Nanotechnology Divides: Development
Indicators and Thai Construction Industry
T. Kitisriworaphan and Y. Sawangdee1
Abstract. Nanotechnology and disparity between developed and developing
nations could increase the gap of global development while it also affects to
construction industry where workers have potentially exposed to nanomaterials
application. This research examined the influence of development indicators as
demographic, social and economic factors on nanotechnology policy among 250
nations. Results revealed that 68.2% of developed countries have policy on
nanotechnology while only 18% of developing countries have such a policy. Fertility and mortality declining with the increasing of literacy, urbanization and energy consumption provide significant positive effect on nanotechnology divides.
Furthermore, results pointed out the existing gap of development between developed and developing worlds.
1 Introduction
Majority of world population is still in developing countries where are considered
as low quality areas due to the people are facing basic needs scarcity like improper
infrastructure and unhealthy condition. The Millennium Development Goals
(MDGs), with the agreement of world leaders, would like to promote environmental sustainability (as MDGs 7) while a phenomenon of urbanization booming
as well as increasing of urban poverty in many dimensions including the living
place becomes the most considerable issue among developed and developing nations. Urbanization also causes the urban poverty increasing due to the poor who
can not afford the basic infrastructures and utilities in the city. Not only urban
poverty becomes more serious but also high energy consumption is concentrated
T. Kitisriworaphan
Institute for Population and Social Research, Mahidol University
e-mail: nanosoctk@gmail.com
http://www.ipsr.mahidol.ac.th
Y. Sawangdee
Institute for Population and Social Research, Mahidol University
e-mail: prysw@mahidol.ac.th
http://www.ipsr.mahidol.ac.th
252
T. Kitisriworaphan and Y. Sawangdee
in the place where urbanization spread through and this also creates disparity of
energy consumption between the rich and poor in the urban. This gap forces
unsustainable city growth and push difficulty for the development goal (MDGs 7)
to succeed especially in developing countries where this gap clearly emerged. Urbanization and construction industry clearly relates to each other due to construction industry strongly supports urban process through infrastructure development.
According to Salamanca-Buentello et al. (2005) mentions that nanotechnology
could help MDGs achievement especially for construction development. However,
there is a doubt about the difference of demographic and socio-economic backgrounds of each nation on how nanotechnologies can contribute the development
equity especially in construction sector where a gap between technology-based
and labor-based intensities is strongly appeared in both developed and developing
worlds [1].
A debate between different perspectives of potential risk and benefit from
nanotechnology application is seriously discussed, for instance, the Joint Center
for Bioethic at University of Toronto mentioned the benefits for socio-economic
development while Erosion, Technology and Concentration (ETC group) in Winnipeg, pointed out that it will increase the divide between rich and poor countries
[2, 3]. The United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO) and
UNESCO also launch the international conference for this emerging dialogue. For
construction industry, an expectation that nanotechnology will help to reduce CO2
emission from cement composing process due to it is considered as a source of
GHGs emission as about 3 percent of global generators of GHG (13,500 million
ton) comes from the cement industry [4]. Besides new materials are expected to be
more durable against coming severe natural disaster such as earthquake, flooding,
landslide, or even promote environmental quality through air and water purification in the future.
However, unknown potential risk of small particles could generate health problems if unprotected policy and practice is ignored especially in the place where
unskilled worker concentration like Thai construction industry. Thailand has also
tried to reduce the cement products in order to combat global warming and it
seems like nanomaterials are outstanding materials for this purpose. The European
Commission launched a survey on Nanotechnology and Construction Industry
2006 which mentioned that nanomaterials such as Carbon nanotube, TiO2 and
Aerogel will arrive in the European construction industry within 10 years and their
application will be mostly on building, bridge and road construction. However,
for developing nation like Thailand, only new imported construction materials are
possibly expected due to there is little R&D support for nanotechnological research beneficial for construction market. While East Asian country like UAE, a
major target of Thai exported construction workers, is interested in nanotechnological application for their many construction projects. This changing could
bring about new obstacle for construction workers who need to compete at international level if the low awareness of nanotechnology among them has still been.
Nanotechnology Divides: Development Indicators and Thai Construction Industry
253
According to the Asia Pacific Nano Forum 2004 on the societal impact of
nanotechnology, most Asia Pacific countries have launched policy to support but
still lack public awareness [5]. Many studies have been conducted around the
world about the social concerns on nanotechnology development and there is still
a lack of explanation on social perception of nanotechnology. Furthermore, most
countries have low public and industry awareness on benefits and risk of nanomaterials [6, 7]. Normally, most scholars who have published their researches on the
social dimensions of nanotechnology perception are scientists so they need social
science knowledge to understand the influential factors influencing on public
opinion and decision making on nanotechnology [8]. Some scholars also mention
about possible risks of nanoparticles in ecosystems and human health [9, 10, 11].
In construction process, worker can directly contact with particles through skin
and respiratory and the particles also release to nature by unwanted construction
waste dumping that lets nanoparticles accumulating in food chain as later will
cause poor human health.
2 Methodology
Studying the nanodivide situation at macro level requires the international indicators as it could help countries to compare each other about their concerns through
nanopolicy application. Having nanopolicy in this study means a country having
its nanotechnology policy or at least providing some evidences pointed that the
country aims to generate nanotechnology policy soon, not only scientific but also
social dimension. The study also employs development indicators such as demographic and socio-economic indicators which based on available Population Reference Bureau 2007 to explain the divide of nanotechnology among countries
through their policy making with an assumption that the demographic and socioeconomic indicators have significantly affected on having nanopolicy among nations. From content analysis, there are about 250 nations but only 195 countries
are accepted as United Nations’ members. According to Maclurcan (2005), he
mentions that among global nanotechnology activities not classified by number of
patents, but policy is also concerned [12].
Demographic indicators can indicate the national development on human capital and economic growth [13, 14]. Fertility is tied to labor supply especially for labor based intensive industry like construction. The high fertility means excess labor supply which was once considered as an advantage for economic
development. For technology based industry like IT industry or even nanotechnology, it is considered to be more appropriate in low fertility areas due to huge number of labor is inessential. High mortality rate is normally existed in the place
where poor public health system such as African countries due to epidemic and
malnutrition problems. For this lack of basic needs, nanotechnology seems to be
new accessible gap for developing world. Percent of population growth indicates
the high population growth area relateing with slow economic development due to
government needs to distribute basic equity in everywhere instead of focusing
254
T. Kitisriworaphan and Y. Sawangdee
only economic development [15]. Higher dependency ratio means burden for
socio-economic development due to labors have to take care of their dependent
persons like children and elderly. Urbanization indicators like urban population
and density can explain the development process especially for construction market. Higher life expectancy at birth explains the better public health technology
and distribution. The high percent of urban population and density point out the
high construction concentration activities such as material consumption for building, bridge and road.
The high in social indicators such as literacy rate and percent of contraceptive
use indicates the high social development also. While the higher rate of under
weight of less than five years children means poor public health system and low
technology society may also exist in such area. For the developed countries where
literacy rate is high, the technology absorbability can be faster than the developing
countries where literacy rate is low. This phenomenon can create a new gap of development between two worlds due to high technology often requires high educated workers. This will become a burden for high technology development countries due to scientists have to produce high technology materials which can be
applied comfortably by low skilled worker. Majority Thai construction workers
are male laborers, and that is to say, about 68.5 percent of construction workers
completed less than certificate level [16]. This low skilled worker can promote
their position by experience, not education attainment. However if the construction sector employs high materials technology, it can affect the majority workers
in Thai construction industry certainly.
Economic indicators such as Gross National Product (GNI, PPP) and carbon
dioxide emission can indicate the better economic development while low amount
of people living under a US dollar per day and percent of natural remained means
the better economic growth. Construction industry can be monitored through some
indicators like percent of urban population, fertility rate and natural remained due
to construction process closely relates with urbanization.
3 Results and Discussion
To examine the nanopolicy activities among 250 nations, the study employed the
data from many resources i.e. European Commission on Nanotechnology, National Nanotechnology Initiative, online articles on nanotechnology regulation and
policy worldwide, etc. Results showed that most developed and developing countries already recognized the benefits of nanotechnology and establish their policy
for working with this tiny technology as shown in table 1 about distribution of
nanopolicy among countries.
From findings of nanopolicy distribution, they were rearranged into dummy
variable as 0 = having no nanopolicy and 1 = having nanopolicy while other variables were controlled.
Nanotechnology Divides: Development Indicators and Thai Construction Industry
255
Table 1 Nanotechnology policy divides between developed and developing countries
Country
Have nanotechnology policy
Total
Have
Do not have
Developed country
68.2 (15)
31.8 (7)
100.0 (22)
Less Developed country
18.9 (43)
81.1 (185)
100.0 (228)
Total
76.8 (192)
23.2 (58)
100.0 (250)
After employed all demographic and socio-economic development indicators
from 250 nations, study showed that some countries have no indicators provided
on PRB database then the missing case was treated and finally the analysis was
conducted as follows.
Step 1 to explore the relationship of demographic and socio-economic development indicators on nanopolicy dividing between developed and developing nations, the t-test statistic was employed and the mean difference between each
demographic and socio-economic development indicators on nanopolicy were
conducted.
Step 2 to examine the causal relationship of demographic and socio-economic
indicators on nanopolicy dividing, the simple dummy dependent variable on regression (Linear Probability Model) was employed. Results indicated that almost
all development indicators have significantly associated with nanopolicy variable,
except death rate and population density as shown in table 2.
To provide better clear picture of relationship among each demographic and
socio-economic development indicators on nanopolicy, the study also analyzed
through the dummy variable on regression analysis as shown in table 3.
Table 2 Relationship between demographics, socio-economic indicators on nanotechnology policy divides
Domain
Have nanopolicy
Mean
Have
Don’t have
difference
t-test
Sig.
Total
26.73 (151)
12.52
7.85
.000
100(209)
Demographic development factors
-Birth rate
14.21 (58)
-Death rate
8.62 (58)
9.42 (151)
0.80
1.06
.291
100(209)
-Growth rate
(percent)
0.55 (58)
1.73 (151)
1.18
8.52
.000
100(209)
-Infant Mortality rate
13.32 (58)
44.92 (149)
31.60
6.06
.000
100(207)
-Maternal Mortality Ratio
66.78(55)
448.58 (113)
381.80
5.88
.000
100(168)
-Total Fertility
Rate
1.86(58)
3.51(150)
1.65
7.28
.000
100(208)
256
T. Kitisriworaphan and Y. Sawangdee
Table 2 (continued)
Domain
Have nanopolicy
Mean
t-test
Sig.
Total
0.26
8.24
.000
100(208)
0.09 (150)
-0.08
-8.20
.000
100(208)
74.38 (58)
64.20(149)
-10.118
-5.724
.000
100(207)
-Urban population (percent)
67.28 (58)
50.58(151)
-16.69
-4.56
.000
100(209)
-Population
density (sq.m.)
351.53(58)
469.88(18
8)
118.34
0.31
.758
100(246)
Have
Don’t
have
difference
-Child dependency ratio
0.32 (58)
0.58 (150)
-Elderly dependency ratio
0.17 (58)
-Life Expectancy at birth
(all)
Social development factors
-Literacy rate of
population age
15-24, female
90.46 (37)
58.63
(141)
-31.83
-4.52
.000
100(178)
-Literacy rate of
population age
15-24, male
91.11 (37)
63.33
(141)
-27.78
-3.97
.000
100(178)
-Percent of
Contraceptive
use among married women
(modern)
55.23 (48)
30.15
(112)
-25.08
-7.46
.000
100(160)
-Under weight
of under 5 yrs
child (percent)
8.96 (27)
17.35(106)
8.39
3.27
.001
100(133)
Economic development factors
-Gross National
Index PPP
20,585.82 (55)
8,347.62
(127)
-12,238.2
-6.41
.000
100(182)
-Population live
under $US 1 a
day
2.51 (58)
9.39 (151)
6.875
2.91
.050
100(209)
-Carbon dioxide
emission (metric ton per capita)
7.25 (55)
3.27 (128)
-3.98
-4.64
.000
100(183)
-Natural remain
(percent)
57.17 (54)
69.29
(125)
12.12
2.77
.050
100(179)
Nanotechnology Divides: Development Indicators and Thai Construction Industry
257
Table 3 Influential of demographics, socio-economic indicators on nanotechnology policy
divides
Domain
Constant
2
Wald
Sig.
Model X
Sig.
N
2
(Model X )
Demographic development factors
-Birth rate
2.09
-0.16
34.31
0.000
63.52
0.000
209
-Death rate
-0.64
-0.04
1.11
0.291
1.167
0.280
209
-Growth rate (percent)
0.65
-1.47
40.86
0.000
62.33
0.000
209
-Infant Mortality Rate
0.23
-0.05
21.46
0.000
45.61
0.000
207
-Maternal Mortality Ra- 0.39
tio
-0.01
15.78
0.000
51.42
0.000
168
-Total Fertility Rate
2.06
-1.23
29.58
0.000
60.26
0.000
208
-Child dependency ratio 2.31
-7.61
36.55
0.000
64.49
0.000
208
-Elderly dependency ra- -3.20
tio
16.40
39.69
0.000
50.28
0.000
208
-Life Expectancy at
birth (all)
0.13
23.62
0.000
41.43
0.000
207
-Urban population (per- -2.71
cent)
0.03
17.57
0.000
19.89
0.000
209
-Population density
(sq.m.)
0.00
0.09
0.760
0.11
0.744
246
-Literacy rate of popula- -3.94
tion age 15-24, female
0.03
12.64
0.000
23.99
0.000
178
-Literacy rate of popula- -3.95
tion age 15-24, male
0.03
9.58
0.002
19.59
0.000
178
-Percent of contraceptive use (modern)
0.06
32.05
0.000
46.03
0.000
160
-0.08
8.82
0.003
11.96
0.001
133
-10.16
-1.17
Social development indicator
-3.52
-Under weight of under -0.42
5 yrs child (percent)
Economic development factors
-GNI_PPP
-1.84
0.00
26.47
0.000
33.19
0.000
182
-Population live under
$US 1 per day
-0.71
-0.05
6.60
0.010
11.01
0.001
209
-Carbon dioxide emis- -1.48
sion (metric ton per capita)
0.13
15.29
0.000
18.87
0.000
183
-Natural remain (percent)
-0.02
7.19
0.007
7.32
0.007
179
0.18
Findings revealed that most development indicators have significantly affected
to nanopolicy. When the demographic development indicators were considered,
finding revealed that most fertility indicators have strong affecting. Birth rate and
258
T. Kitisriworaphan and Y. Sawangdee
growth rate indicated that countries having low fertility are more likely to have
nanopolicy at statistical significant level .001. Aging societies are more likely to
have nanopolicy at statistical significant level .001 as well as percent of urban indicated that countries with more urbanized are more likely to have nanopolicy at
statistical significant level .001. However, the death rate and population density do
not have casual relation with nanopolicy among nations. Overall, it can be said
that low fertility nations are more likely to focus on nanotechnology regulation
and policy while nanotechnology has been promoted in most developed countries
at present.
Consideration of social aspect also revealed that countries having more social
development are more likely to have nanopolicy. Literacy indicator for both sex
and percent of contraceptive use among married women (modern methods)
pointed out the modern society which positive literacy rate countries (better education) are more likely to have nanopolicy at statistical significant level .001 while
nations where better infant health are more likely to have nanopolicy at statistical
significant level .010 also. These findings confirm the influence of social indicators on national development [17].
For economic indicators also confirmed the same direction that more economic
development areas are more likely to have nanopolicy. Furthermore, these findings strongly confirmed the existing gap of nanotechnology regulation and policy
application between developed and developing countries. The finding is in accordance with a study of Schummer (2005) which showed that nanotechnologies can
simultaneously and unavoidably generate the disparity gap between the rich and
the poor.
Among finding indicators, the study found that increasing of urban population
could lead to technology consideration like nanotechnology as well as lower fertility and percent of natural remained. For labor intensive sector like Thai construction industry where depends on the labor supply. Majority of construction workers
are labors who also low education (primary school) [19]. The adoption of
nanotechnology could not be easier to the firm but it could be possible by comparing with the Computer Aid Drafting (CAD) technology boom in 2 decades ago.
Besides, literacy rate can increase the technology application though policy formation. To promote nanotechnology in construction sector, the awareness among
construction workers on nanotechnology application must not be focused only on
skilled labor but also unskilled one.
4 Conclusion
The study strongly states that “Nanotechnology could increase the technology importing among developing countries, not equal opportunity due to high technology
certainly needs high skill workers” In order to apply high technology, only imported technology is possible for developing countries [18]. Finally, the new technology can be a new burden for workers, especially the construction workers in
developing world like Thailand.
Nanotechnology Divides: Development Indicators and Thai Construction Industry
259
References
1. Salamanca-Buentello, F., Persad, D.L., Court, E.B., Martin, D.K., Daar, A.S., Singer,
P.A.: Nanotechnology and the Developing World. PLoS Medicine (2005)
2. Compañó, R., Hullmann, A.: Forecasting the development of nanotechnology with the
help of science and technology indicators. Nanotechnology 13, 243–247 (2002)
3. Schummer, J.: The impact of nanotechnologies on developing countries. In: Allhoff,
F., Lin, P., Weckert, J. (eds.) Nanoethics: The ethical and social implications of
nanotechnology, Hoboken, NJ, pp. 291–307. Wiley, Chichester (2007)
4. Mann, S.: Nanotechnology and Construction. Institute of Nanotechnology. Nanoforum
Consortium (2006)
5. Asia Pacific Nano Forum, Societal Impact of Nanotechnology in the Asia Pacific Region. Asia Pacific Nanotech Weekly 2,47. Nanotechnology Research Institute (2004)
6. Sheetz, T., Vidal, J., Pearson, T.D., Lozano, K.: Nanotechnology: Awareness and societal concerns. Technology in Society, 329–354 (2005)
7. Scheufele, D.A.: Scientists worry about nanotechnology’s health and environmental
impacts. The Center for Nanotechnology in Society, Arizona State University (2008)
8. Fujita, Y.: Perception of nanotechnology among general public in Japan. Asian Pacific
Nanotech Weekly 4, 6. Nanotechnology Research Institute (2006)
9. Boccuni, F., Rondinone, B., Petyx, C., Iavicoli, S.: Potential occupational exposure to
manufactured nanoparticles in Italy. J. Clean Prod. 16, 949–956 (2008)
10. Cheng, M.D.: Effects of nanophase materials (≤ 20 nm) on biological responses. Journal of Environmental Science and Health A39, 2691–2705 (2004)
11. Monteiro-Riviere, N.A., Orsière, T.: Toxicological Impacts of Nanomaterials. In: Wiesner, M.R., Bottero, J. (eds.) Environmental Nanotechnology: Applications and Impacts of Nanomaterials, pp. 395–434. The McGrow-Hill Companies (2008)
12. Maclurcan, D.C.: Nanotechnology and developing countries part 2: what realities.
AZojono Journal of Nanotechnology Online 1, 1–19 (2005)
13. Bloom, D.E., Williamson, J.G.: Demographic transition and economic miracles in
emerging Asia. The World Bank Economic Review 12(3), 419–455 (1998)
14. Drèze, J., Murthi, M.: Fertility, education, and development: Evidence from India
population and development. Review 27(1), 33–63 (2004)
15. Preston, S.H.: The changing relation between mortality and level of economic development. Int. J. Epidemiol. 36, 484–490 (2007)
16. NSO, Labor force survey round 1-3. National Statistical Office. Ministry of Interior
(2006)
17. Andrews, F.M.: Population issues and social indicators of well-being. Population and
Environment 6, 210–230 (1983)
18. Mayer, J.: Technology diffusion, human capital and economic growth in developing
countries. In: United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD)
(2001)
19. NSO, Labor force survey round 1-3. National Statistical Office. Ministry of Interior
(2007)