PERSONALITY AND THE
ATHLETE
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Personality:
Pattern of characteristic thoughts,
feelings, and behaviours that distinguish
one person from another and persist
over time and situations.
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Personalities of Athletes vs. NonAthletes
Compared to non-athletes, athletes are more:
Stable
Extroverted
Competitive
Dominant
Self-confident
Achievement-oriented
Psychologically well-adjusted
Conservative with respect to political views
Authoritarian
Persistent
Display higher levels of self-esteem
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Mood States of Elite vs. NonElite Athletes
Mood states of elite athletes vs. lesser
skilled athletes are below in:
Tension
Depression
Anger
Fatigue
Confusion
And are markedly higher in:
Vigor
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Iceberg Profile
This mood state profile resembles an iceberg and is
therefore often referred to as the iceberg profile
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T-SCORE
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55
50
45
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Successful Athletes
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Unsuccessful Athletes
Tension
Depression
Anxiety
Vigor
Fatigue
Confusion
PROFILE OF MOOD STATES
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Symptoms of Cognitive State
Anxiety
The Symptoms of Distress Checklist
Cold, clammy hands
______
Increased heart rate
______
Cotton mouth
______
Faster breathing
______
Unable to concentrate
______
Trembling hands
Desire to urinate often
______
Tense muscles
______
Diarrhea
______
Nausea
______
Feeling of fatigue
______
Voice distortion
______
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MOTIVATION AND SPORT
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Motivation determines the reasons for an
athlete’s behavior.
It is defined as the direction, energy, and
intensity of behavior.
It is synonymous with inspiration,
enthusiasm, or the will to win.
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McClelland-Atkinson Model
McClelland-Atkinson Model suggests
that achievement motivation is a
function of:
1. The motive to achieve success
• An athlete’s intrinsic motivation to engage in
an exciting activity
2. The fear of failure
• A psychological construct associated with
cognitive state anxiety
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Achievement Motivation =
intrinsic motivation – cognitive state anxiety
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Extrinsic Motivation
McClelland-Atkinson model of achievement
motivation could NOT predict athletic success
Therefore, extrinsic motivation was added to
the original model
– Example: praise, money, trophies, and other forms
of reward
This modified model acknowledges that
factors external to the athlete may influence
individual’s overall motivation
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Factors Affecting Achievement
Motivation
The following factors affect achievement
motivation:
1. Self-confidence
2. Self-efficacy
3. Goal setting
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1. Self-Confidence
Discriminating factor between
individuals high and low in achievement
motivation
Similar to the motive to achieve
success:
– The confident athlete has a high motive to
succeed and a high expectation for
success
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2. Self-Efficacy
Based on Bandura’s Model
Individual’s belief that he or she is capable of
succeeding at a particular task
i.e., situation-specific self-confidence
Used in sport psychology (vs. self-confidence)
because the sporting environment represents
a very specific situation
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2. Self-Efficacy Cont’d
Self-efficacy (and subsequently
achievement motivation) can be
enhanced through:
(a) successful performance
(b) vicarious experience
(c) verbal persuasion
(d) emotional arousal
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Improving Self-efficacy
Successful Performance
–
–
–
The most important factor in improving selfefficacy
Raises expectations for future successes; while
failure lowers these expectations
For best results:
1. Break down skill learning into small steps to
insure success early
2. Practice, practice, practice
3. Highlighting successes and downplaying setbacks
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Improving Self-efficacy
Vicarious Experience
– Demonstrating repeated success through
participatory modeling
• i.e., the subject first observes a model perform a task
– For best results:
1. Employ participatory modeling before the athlete
attempts the skill on his/her own
2. Utilize only models who are technically correct in
their execution
3. Ensure successful execution by the athlete in the
early stages of learning
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Improving Self-efficacy
Verbal Persuasion
– Constant provision of encouragement, as
well as specific skill instructions
– For best results:
1. Provide specific rather than general feedback
2. Have the athlete repeat your instructions back to
you before beginning
3. Focus on the positive aspects of the athlete’s
performance
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Improving Self-efficacy
Emotional Arousal
– An optimal level of arousal is required to develop
self-efficacy
– Too much or too little arousal will impact
negatively on the development of self-efficacy
– For best results:
1. In the early stages of learning, keep things relaxed.
2. Get to know athletes one-on-one. Some will need more
arousal, while others less.
3. Help athletes recognize when they need to “psych-up
or calm-down.”
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3. Goal Setting
Last way to improve achievement motivation
is to employ effective goal setting strategies
Goal Setting Strategies for Maximum Motivation
1. Set goals that are observable, measurable, and
achievable.
2. Set realistic, yet challenging goals.
3. Set positive goals, not negative goals (such as don’t lose).
4. Coaches and teachers should negotiate goals for their
athletes or students, not mandate them.
5. Set short-term as well as long-term goals.
6. Set goals for your practices, as well as your actual
competitions.
7. Set goals related to the athletes performance or technical
execution, not contest outcome (win vs. lose).
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CAUSAL ATTRIBUTION IN
SPORT
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Attribution theory is a cognitive approach
to motivation.
It assumes that people strive to explain,
understand, and predict events based
upon their own perceptions.
What the athlete believes to be true is
important for future motivation.
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Outcomes can be attributed:
– Internally to the person (personal force)
• Composed of ability and effort
– Externally to the environment; i.e.
(environmental force)
• Composed of task difficulty and luck
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Classification Scheme for Causal
Attribution
Locus of Control
Stable
Stability
External
Ability
Task Difficulty
Unstable
Internal
Effort
Luck
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Stability Dimension
Stable attributions: relatively unchanging from
one day to the next (ability and task difficulty)
Unstable attributions: vary markedly from time
to time (effort and luck)
Locus of Control
Stable
Stability
External
Ability
Task Difficulty
Unstable
Internal
Effort
Luck
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Locus of Control Dimension
Internal attributions: include attributes
perceives as controllable (ability and effort)
External attributions: perceived to be outside
the athlete’s control (task difficulty and luck)
Locus of Control
Stable
External
Ability
Task Difficulty
Unstable
Stability
Internal
Effort
Luck
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Implications
Before competition the athlete should be
encouraged to focus on effort vs. ability
– Both effort and ability are within athlete’s control,
but effort is unstable from game to game
Athletes must focus on preparing strategies
that will be effective against task difficulty
(e.g. an opposing team) vs. luck
– Both luck and task difficulty are beyond athlete'
s
control, but task difficulty is stable and predictable.
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The End
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