PRE FAC E
Th e M i li t a ry Ch ap l a ins R evi ew i s d es ign e d as a me dium in
whi c h thos e intere ste d in the military c h aplaincy c an sh are
with chap lain s the prod uct of their expe rie nce and re se a rch We
w e lcome article s whi c h are dire ct ly conce rne d with supporting
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and strengthening chaplain s profe s sionally Preference will be
given to tho se article s h aving l a sting va lue a s re ference m ate
rial
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T h e M ili t a ry Ch ap l ai ns R evi ew is pu bli shed qu arterly Th e
opinions r efl ected in e a c h article are thos e of the author an d d o
not ne ce s sarily r e fl ect the view o f the Chief o f Ch ap l ain s o r the
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Dep artment of the Army
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Articl e s should be sub mitte d in d upli c ate d oub le sp a ce d to
th e E ditor Milit ary Chap lain s Review Unit ed St ate s Army
Chaplain B oard Fort W a d swort h St aten I sland N ew York
1 0 3 0 5 Article s should be approxim ate ly 8 to 1 8 p a ge s in length
and whe n appropri ate s hould be c are fu ll ly footnote d
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E D I TOR
Chaplain ( LT C) John J H oogland M ay 1 9 7 1 4 une 1 9 7 4
Chap lain ( LT C) Jo seph E Ga lle I I I J uly 1 9 7 4
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T HE B E S T AN D T H E W O R S T OF T IM E S
One of our dil e mm as i s that o u r knowle dge i s about the past
but our d ec i sion s are about the future We le a rn from the pa st
but how h e lpfu l i s hi story in the mid st of the radical ch ange we
are ex p e rien cing We have few pre ce d ent s to guide u s through
th e se kal e ido s c opic time s S o much ha s h appe ne d : two glob al
wars nu c le ar fis sion population explo sion cybe rn e ti c s Fre ud
Stravin sky
Pica s so
I one sco
moon landings
Te lstar
e uthana sia wond er d rugs he art tran sp lant s c omput e rs cre dit
c ard s rob ot s ethni c revolution s the B eatles and an a s s a s si
nat e d Pre sid e nt The se a long with a li st of oth e r e v e nts from
our re c ent p a st tend to c onvey not only a sen se of ch ange but of
l o s s— the s ound of a door shutting to the pa st
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T o say w e are caught betwe en a p a st that i s mu ch diffe r e nt
from the pr e s e nt an d a future that we kn ow will be im m e a su ra
b ly diffe r e nt from both— i s c o mmonplace We are s lowly re ali z
ing how e v e r that on e age ha s end e d but the new one ha s not
y e t begun
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Charl e s Dicke n s wrote :
I t w as t h e b e st o f ti m e s it w as t h e wo rst of tim e s it w as t h e age of
w i s d o m i t w as t h e age o f foo l ish ne ss it w as t h e e p oc h of b e l i e f it w as
t h e e p o c h o f i nc r e du l it y it w a s t h e se a s o n o f L ight it w a s t h e s e a s o n o f
D ark ne ss it w as t h e spri ng o f h o pe it w as t h e wi nte r of d e sp air w e
h ad e v e r yt h i ng b e for e us we h ad no thi ng b e fo r e us w e w e re all go i ng
d ir e ct t o He ave n w e we re al l go ing dire c t t h e othe r w ay
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T hough writt e n in 1 8 59 th e s e lin e s somewhat proph e ti c ally if
not di stu rbingly d e s c rib e th e c ont e mp orary situ ation A large
amount of un ce rtaint y e xi st s e sp ec i ally about th e futur e and
that s wh e re yo u and I will sp e nd the r e st o f ou r live s
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T ho s e who w rot e for thi s i s sue of the R evi ew r ec ogni z e th e
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b e st and th e worst the wi sd om and the fooli shne s s th e
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hop e and th e d e sp air of th e time s They h owev e r c arry u s
furth e r by allowing u s to view the future through th e ir e ye s
E a c h s ee m s to s ugge st t h at we will h ave a future but th at we
mu st tak e c harge of it tod ay We ar e to pa rti c ip at e in o ur futur e
eve n now building it w ith w hat e ve r m ate ria ls w e po s s e s s and
mo ve into it with hop e Along with hope we are r e minde d to
c arry with u s hone sty r e spon sibility hu mility and lo ve who s e
pot e ntial h a s ye t to b e fu lly appropriat e d in any s o c i e ty
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For b e tt e r or for wors e th e future i s pre s sing upon u s T h e
d ec i sion s we mu st m ak e are not e a sy on e s By m aintaining o ur
tru st in God and e a c h oth e r by c he ri shing the vi si on of w hat we
ar e c ap ab le of be c oming and to c heri sh th e de ve lop ment of th e
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same in othe rs by e nj oying life long inte lle c tual and spiritual
growth by cultivating the cap acity to fee l and expre s s lov e and
j oy trage dy and grief and by viewing humanity a s one whil e
re sp e cting diversity and differe nc e tod ay — tomorrow hum anit y
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might be able to s ay The se are the be st of tim e s
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O R R I S E KE L L Y
Ch ap l ain ( M aj or Ge n e ra l ) U S A
Chi e f of Ch apl ains
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P am
16 5 1 1 0
HE A D QU ART E R S
D E P ART M EN T OF T HE AR M Y
W a s hingt o n D C S umme r 1 9 7 6
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MI LI T AR Y C HA P LA I N S RE V I E W
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Article s
The M a n age me nt o f Change
Ch ap l ain ( L T C) D avid G B oyce
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Toward the Tricentennial
Fre d erik P t
I s America D ecadent
D r Peter B e rge r
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Church and St ate in Ame rica in the Twenty
F irst Ce ntury A D
Dr Wi lford E S mith
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The Future of Hu man Re l ation s in th e Unite d
St ate s
Dr He rbe rt O E dward s
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The F uture Signific ance of E d ucation
Ch ap lain ( CO L ) Clinton E B rowne Ret
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The M aking of F uture Mini sters
Dr John Killinger
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Ch ap laincy in the Ye ar 2 00 0
Dr Rich a rd G H utche son
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The
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Nonviolent Source s of the American Revolutio n
a n d Their I mplic ation s fo r Tomorrow
M a rtin L S mith
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Archite ct s of the Third Ce ntury
Cl a re B Fi sche r and Jo ann N E akin
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T HE M ANA G E M E N T OF C HAN G E
C h ap l ain ( LT C ) D avid G B o yc e
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Ch a nge i s the p a s s age from potenti a lity to actu a lity
— Aristotle
You c a nnot step into the s a me river twice
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He raclitu s
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Where there i s
no
vi sion the pe ople peri sh
— Ancient Prove rb
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Ch ange i s ba sic to the hum a n co ndition It i s ve ry much a fact
o f life
The re i s a re al d egree o f cert a inty a bout ch a nge D ay
change s t o night Night ch a nge s to d ay Ch a nge i s a given The
p art that i s not so ce rt a in i s whethe r ch a nge will m a n age u s or
we will m anage it
Th at i s wh at the art and di scip line of futurology i s all
—
a bout
the m a n age ment of ch a nge The art include s thre e
part s : ch a nge th at i s prob a ble ch a nge th at i s po s sible and
ch a nge that i s prefe rable
P ro b a b l e c h a ng e s have been anticip ated by individu als and
organi z ation s such a s the R a nd C orpo ration the Hud son In sti
tute the Club o f Rome the In stitute for the F uture and the
B rookings In stitute S ome of the m a nage ment o f change
methodologie s for ascert aining prob ab le change s u se d by the se
organi z ation s are the De lphi te chnique sy ste m s dyn amic com
pute r mod el e conometric mod el extrapol ation te chnique
cro s s imp act analysi s g a ming br a in storming expert p a ne ls
B aye sian statistic s Markov ch a in the ory M onte C a rlo te ch
nique and the scenario
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U sing the syste m s dyn a mic comp ute r mo d e l the Club o f
Rome formulate d a nd pub li she d Th e L i m i t s t o G ro w t h in 1 9 7 2
M ade up of a gro up of scienti st s and ind u stri a li st s the authors
of this report collecte d glob a l d a ta a bo ut world popu l ation food
supplie s pollution a nd ind u strial raw m ateria ls The report ex
plain s h ow e ach of the se v a riab le s wi ll ri se a nd fall during the
next one hund re d ye a rs The conclu sion re ache d i s th a t pre sent
trend s will bring about the collap se o f civi li z ation be fore the
ye a r 2 1 0 0 unle s s d rastic re stricti on s a re pla ced o n e conomic and
te chnological growth
Anothe r method ology fo r anticip ating ch a nge i s the De lphi
technique Thi s i s a survey method in which seve ral expert s a re
ask e d to re spond to one o r more que stionn a ire s sent through
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m m b r o f t h U S A rmy Ch p l
B oy c
A d io /v
l O ffi c r Ch p l i B o y c h
co d ct d
r pr nt t h B o d t h r of f t rol ogy
Ch apl am
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e is a
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B o rd I dd t io t o h i
r y o f f t t t di
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ai n
a W l de
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rol
fo rm all
s a s signe d
u u ri s l c s u
e s and
e as
y
the m ail They are norm a lly a ske d t o m a ke j udgment s a bout
whe n and und er what condition s ce rt ain eve nt s are likely to
occur Their O pinion s which u su a lly cove r a wide r a nge a re
colle cte d an d u se d a s the b a si s of a se con d que stionnaire which
a sks the s am e expert s to m ake the s a me j udgment s c a lle d fo r in
the first que stionn a ire now in the light o f the colle cted r a nge o f
O pinion Thu s the expert s m ay ( or m ay n o t ) m odify their origi
nal e stim ate s afte r receiving fe e db ack from othe r expert s Thi s
proce s s c a n be repe ate d seve ral time s until a con sen su s i s
re ache d
U sing the De lphi te chnique R a nd Corpo ration o ne o f the well
known think t anks provided the following li st of prob able
c h a nge s by the ye ar 2 00 0
N ew food s ource s will h ave O pene d up through l arge -scale
oce an farming and fabric ation of syntheti c protein s Controlle d
thermo nucle ar powe r will be a sour c e o f e nergy N ew raw m ate
rials will be derive d from the oce an s Regional we athe r control
will be p a st the expe rimental stage Ge ner a l im muni z ation
again st b acte rial and viral di se a se s will be av ailable Primitiv e
form s o f arti fici al life will h a ve b een ge ne rated in the l a bora
tory The corre ction o f hereditary d efe ct s will b e po s sib l e A u
t o m at io n will h ave adva nce d from me ni a l rob ot service s to
sophi sti c ated high IQ m a chine s A universa l l angu ag e will
h ave evolve d thro ugh autom at ed c om muni c ation On the mo on
th e re will be minin g and m an ufacturing o f prop ellant m ate ri als
Hu m an s will h ave l and ed o n Mars
Anothe r mana ge me nt of change m ethodology i s the scen ario
Thi s i s a n arrative in wh ich the author put s togethe r a s e rie s o f
e ve nt s that might co nc e ivab ly take p l a ce i n the future The
ra tio nal e fo r the author s be lie f in the prob ability of such a
sequence u su ally de rive s from a trend extrapo lation or an aly si s
of exp e rt opinion By working the dat a into a narrative the
author c an ofte n m ake a convin cing c a se for the prob ability of
o c curre nce
He rm an Kahn of Hu d son In stitute and Paul E hrlich are e spe
c i a l l y ad e pt at the u se o f thi s technique The O p ening p aragraph
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o f E hrli c h s e s s ay
E co -C atastroph e
in clu ded in Alvin
T o ffl e r s Th e Fu tu ri s t s serv e s a s a go od ex ample of th e s cen ario
t ec hnique
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o c e an c am e l at e in t h e summ e r o f 1 9 7 9 and it c am e e v e n
m o re r apid ly th an t h e bi o l o gists h ad e xpe ct e d T h e re h ad b e e n signs for
m o re t h an a d e c ad e c o m m e ncing w ith t h e dis c o v e ry in 1 968 th at
DDT s l ow s d own ph o t o s ynth e sis in m ari ne p l ant l i fe I t w as ann o u nc e d
i n a sh o rt p a pe r in t h e t e c h ni c al j o ur n al S c i e nce but t o e colo gists it
sm acke d o f d o o msd ay T h e y k ne w th at all life in t h e se a d e pe nds o n
ph o to s ynthe sis t h e c h e mi c al pro c e ss b y w hi c h gre e n p l ants bi nd t h e
su n s e ne rgy and m ake it av ai l ab l e t o l i vi ng thi ngs A nd th e y kno w
Th e
e nd o f t h e
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th at DDT and simi l ar c h l o ri nat e d h yd oc arb o ns h ad p oll ut e d t h e e ntire
surface of t h e e arth incl udi ng t h e s e a
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Thi s sce n a rio written in 1 9 6 9 t ake s a current piece o f d at a
(the di sco very o f the re l ation ship o f DD T an d photo synthe si s )
an d proj ect s a future occu rrence ( the end o f the o ce an ) b a sed o n
expert opinion ( e cologi st s ) E hrli ch i s no t re a lly foreca sting
wh at will h a ppen but wh at c o u ld h appen if we d o nothing to
stop it M any scen a rio s a re c a lls t o action and be cau se of their
dram atic form at they are often e ffective B e cau se o f the e ffort s
o f E hrli c h an d others DD T wa s b a nne d and mu ch le s s o f it n o w
find s it s way into the oce an s
S o far we have be en looking at prob a b le change and some o f
—
the techniq ue s u se d to anticip a te such ch a nge D elphi
sce nario and sy stem s dynamic co mputer mod el The next step
deals with po s sible change
P o s s i b l e c h a ng e i s the se cond c ategory s ub sum e d und e r the
man age ment of ch a nge rub ric The m a nagement of ch ange
methodologie s for a sce rt aining po s sib le ch a nge s inclu de
philo sophical spe culation scientific sp e cu l ation an d science fi c
tion lite rature
Since 1 5 1 6 when Thoma s M oore de scribed that di st a nt i sl a nd
which he gave the n ame Ut opia
m any de sign s
have bee n cre ate d t o de s c ribe the ide al li fe a nd the be st of all
po s sible world s ; and from a n e a rlier time o ut o f the Golden Age
of Gre e ce c ame Plato s R ep u b li c
Anothe r Gold en Age i s d e scribe d by a mod ern d ay Utopi st
Rob e rt J a st ro v H e contend s that scien c e ha s opene d the door
on the new Go lde n Age of M an — the Age of L ei sure — in which
all are free d from the pre ssure s of the environm ent A new type
of ave rage m an will popul ate thi s high te chnology l o w
population society a m an w h o i s re laxe d and noncompetitive
The trait s of re source fulne s s drive and m otivation wi ll be pre
serv e d but at a m uch re duce d leve l of inte n sity in a ccord ance
with their re duce d import a nce The work ethi c will a lso pe rsi st
at the minim a l leve l need e d t o keep the high stand ard of living
in rep air Te chnological innov ation s will have a di sruptive in
fl u e nce on the stable e conomy of that future time and will ac
quire a negative social va lue le ading eventually to their vi rtu al
dis appe arance
I n thi s Age of L ei sure the cu ltivation of the art s will continue
but at a low level o f achieve ment M any pe ople will pursue
cr e ativ e a ctivitie s in a l e i su re ly m anne r but the cre ation of a
gre at work o f art or literature require s a p uni shing se lf
di scipline that sure ly will become an eve r rarer trait in the Age
of L e i sure than it i s today T here will be a m aj or decline in the
vigor o f technology science and the art s War will vani sh from
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the pl a net The rel axe d society o f the Age o f Lei sure will be
st a ble with the tr a it s o f aggre s sion and competitivene s s pretty
we ll bre d o u t of the hum an stock A n ew type o f indivi du al will
exi st po s se s sing a new p syche we ll ad a pted to the unpre s sure d
circum st ance s of th at world
I n addition to the philo sophical spe culation o f Ut opi a s the re
i s another te chnique u sed to a nticip a te po s sib le ch a nge It i s the
method ology o f scientific spe culation
A Princeton University phy sici st Gera rd K O N e ill po st
u l at e s that an e a rth -like sp ace colony cou ld b e orbitin g our
pl a net by 1 9 90 The colony s
inhabit ant s would enj oy
gre en plant s animals pl a in s va lley s hill s an d stre am s Th e
coloni st s would pay off the co st of building their far -out home by
m anufa cturing s ate llite so l a r powe r station s which would sup
ply che ap virtu a lly ine x h a u st a b l e powe r to the e a rth
Thi s highly ind ustrializ ed se lf-m aint a ining hum an c o mm u
nit y in fre e sp ace would be locate d along L 5 an o rbit o f the
moon whe re fre e so lar e nergy i s a v a ilable full time The com
munity wo uld be con structed o n a short time s c a le without
depending o n rocket e ngine s any more a dv a nce d than the sp ace
shuttle The co st s wou ld be gre at ly minimi zed by getting almo st
all the con stru ction m aterials from the s urface of the moon
The sp a ce community would proce s s l unar s urface raw m at e
ri a ls into met als ce ramics gla s s and oxyge n for the c o nst ru c
tion of a dditional communitie s a nd fo r pro duct s such a s sate llite
solar powe r station s The power st ation s when c omp lete d
wo uld be re loc ate d in orbit around the e arth to supply e lectri c a l
powe r fro m l ow den sity microw a ve be a m s
Anothe r scientific spe culation thi s time from a conte mpor a ry
astronome r t end s to stretch the im a gin ation N S Kard a shev
ha s done some spe cu lating about inte llige nt civi li z ation s in the
universe He po stulate s that a planet ary civili z ation will go
through thre e m ain pha se s Pha se o n e i s like o ur pre sent world
that d raws o n the energy re source s o f a single p lanet Pha se two
—
o c curs whe n the entire solar sy ste m i s utilize d the giant
planet s like Jupiter in our own solar sy ste m b eing di sm antle d
and di sp lace d to u se their raw m ateri als ( We h ave tou c he d the
e dge O f ph a se two by putting me n o n th e moon and by sending
a n unm anne d sp a ce ship Pione e r 1 0 o ut of o u r sol a r sy ste m o n
it s way to the st a rs ) Ph a se thre e i s re ache d s ay s Dr Kar
d ash ev when wh ole s ection s o f a ga laxy are b eing utiliz ed ( The
galaxy t o which our sun belongs cont ain s ab out 1 0 0 billion sun s
It i s about
light ye ars fro m e nd t o end )
A we ll known pe rson in science Wernhe r von B raun ha s done
som e spe culating a bout life in the twenty fi rst ce ntury He
po stulate s th at by the midd le of the next centu ry a colony of
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more th a n a hund red thou s a nd people will be living on the
moon I n the mid st o f th at colony a moon b a by will be born
That child h a ving grown up o n one -sixth gr a vity and equip
ped with the brilli ant te chnologic a l d evice s that life o n the moon
will dem a nd will neve r w a nt t o live pe rm a ne nt ly o n e a rth The
gr avity of the home pl a net will oppre s s th at person a s if he we re
six time s his actual weight E a rth s politic a l and economic sys
tem s will appe ar to him both ch a otic a nd d a nge rou s and the
pre sence of m any more b a cteri a in the air will require s o m any
inocul ation s a s t o m a ke the vi sit t o e a rt h una ccept a ble
Philo sophical speculation i s inte re sting and scienti fic s p e c u
l ation i s mind -boggling b ut the re i s still anothe r m a n agement
It i s
o f ch a nge methodology fo r a nticip a ting po s sib le ch ange
called science fiction lite r ature
Science fiction ha s a ve ry high b atting aver age in a nticip ating
po s sible future s The society d epicted by Ald ou s Huxley ove r
thirty ye a rs ag o in B ra v e N ew Wo rl d b ecome s more o f a re ality
eve ry d ay Our a stron a ut s walke d o n the mo on in sp ace suit s
a m a zingly like tho se de scribe d in scie nce fiction m ore th a n fifty
ye ars ag o
In a S p o rt s Ill u s t ra t e d science fiction story Wi lli am
Hj ort sbe rg d e scribe s the sport s sce ne in America in the ye ar
2 03 2 P ro football i s a s popular a s ever but the players are all
superior athlete s w h o h a ve be en genetica lly e ngineere d to
spe cific ation and then clone d t o provi de an end le s s supply o f
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“
super Jo cks t o ke ep the Ame rican sport s fa n h appy
Another s ci e nce fiction story de al s with the problem of over
population In a high -te chnology high -p opu l a tion s ociety c o o r
d i n a t i o n of e v ent s w i l l b e co m e c ru c i a l M achine s will be running
things a nd to m ake m a chine s w a it will co st money Coordin ation
wi ll also be important be c a u se of the incre a se d d em a nd o n vari
ou s facilitie s the l a rge popul ation will effect I n Order t o a ecom
m o d at e the large numbe r of peop le rot ation of u se -time s and
around -the -clo ck sche duling m ay be co mmonp la ce fo r re st au
ra nt s r e cre ation fa cilitie s bu sine s s facilitie s and even living
space s
In a story by H a rlan E lli son thi s p o s sibility i s t aken t o the
extreme and a world is portraye d where eve ryb ody begin s with
”
“
a fixe d li fetime E ve ry second that the individu a l i s l ate for
bu sine s s re cre ation or anything i s deducte d from the person s
allotted sp an Time i s kept by the Ticktock M an When a per
son s late time equ als the time the indivi dual h a s t o liv e th at
person i s termin ate d Thi s i s j u st o ne p o s sibility for a world with
a popu lation o f forty to fifty billion pe ople
run by high IQ
m achine s
We have con sidere d the first two p a rt s o f the m an agement of
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change prob able ch ange s a n d po s sib le ch a nge s N ow let u s
ex a mine the third leg of the triad p ref e ra b l e c h a ng e
In order t o m anage ch ange e ffective ly it i s ve ry helpful t o
know what change s are p rob ab le and wh at change s are po s si
ble Ho w e v e r i n t h e fina l ana ly s i s t h e i nd i vid u a l m u s t d e t e rm i n e
w h a t c h a nge s a re p ref e ra b l e and w ha t k i nd of fu t u re i s p e rs o n
a l ly d e s i re d After all the rep ort s a re in whe n a ll the storie s
h ave been told whe n all the indi cators h ave bee n reviewe d the
bottom line o f futurology ( change m an ageme nt ) h as thre e
p art s : clari fic ation o f one s value s orde ring o f one s prioritie s
and m aking the ne ce s sary co m
mitment s
I n o ur s oci ety econ omi c v alu e s are u su ally high o n the s c ale
j o b c are er p ay che ck promoti on and prope rty Deci sion s ar e
ofte n m ad e o n the ba sis o f gre at w e ight being given t o e conomic
value s The individu al memb ers o f o u r s ociety will m ak e d ec i
sion s abo ut pre ferable c hange and pr e ferred future s according
t o how mu ch weight they give t o e conomi c value s (j o b ) soci al
sy ste m value s ( hum an right s ) and technological v a lue s ( auto
m ation )
I n o u r collective life togethe r the deci sion -m akers th at we
have e lected t o loca l and n ational office will m ake deci sion s
about prefer a b le change s a nd the future o f o ur society b a se d on
the weight that they p e rc e i v e their con stitue nt s giv e to soci al
sy st e m value s te chnological va lue s and economi c value s I f
environmental st ability i s a va lue the n e nv 1 ro n m e nt al de c ay i s
a prob lem I f social j u sti c e i s a value the n social inj u sti c e i s a
prob lem I f e conomic we ll b e ing i s a value th e n poverty i s a
problem If pe a c e i s a value th e n w ar i s a prob lem
“
Since we know that we will die we go ab out writing Kilroy
”
w a s he re o n othe r individu al s an d o n the environment
P e rh ap s the m an age m e nt of ch a nge will he lp provi de better
“
”
way s t o write Ki lroy wa s h e re
A m aj or oil comp any h a s keye d into the concept of prefe rre d
“
c h ange s It h a s started an ad c amp aign c alled Ce l e brate
”
Ame rica s Tric e ntenni a l 1 00 Ye ars E a rly The c amp aign will
“
b e u se d t o solicit ide a s fro m th e pub li c pe rtinent t o Am e ri c a s
future
Ame ri c a will c hange a gre at d e al by the ye ar 2 0 7 6
and we w ant yo u to te ll u s wh at yo u think the se change s should
”
be
T o m anage c hange in o ur individu al liv e s i s practical wi sdom
To m anage change in o ur colle ctive live s i s of c ru ci al impor
tance If we gra sp the concept that the world will see m any
ch ange s in t h e next twenty fi v e ye ars if we have ordere d our
prioriti e s an d h a v e c l e arly und e rstood our own person al v alu e
sy ste m the n we will be m ore like ly to cre ate the kind o f future
that we want
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We will the n be in the h appy po sition o f a ctive ly a nd a s se r
t iv e l y m an a ging ch a nge rathe r th a n ine ffectively milling
around letting ch ange m an age u s
.
F re derik Pohl
I am a s cie nce fi ction write r which me an s I spen d my working
life m aking up fa nta stic storie s ab out a dventure s in str a nge
place s and time s I began doing thi s whe n I wa s s eventeen and
no w a lm o st forty ye ars late r a grand fathe r I am still doing the
s ame thing There are some difference s to be s ure Science fi c
tion h a s be come immen sely mo re re spe ct a b le th a n it w a s in the
3 0 8 ; college s te a ch it a s pa rt of the regul a r curricu lum fo u nd a
tion s suppo rt it even gove rn me nt s a cknowledge it s exi stence
The audience s are far l a rge r— some hu nd red s o f million s of
people h a ve re a d my o w n storie s in some forty l a ngu age s all
aro und the wo rld B ut when you come right down to it wh at I do
fo r a c are er is pre tty cl ose to wh at I did as th e i d l e re cre ation o f
a rathe r imm ature te enager and eve ry n ow and the n I confront
“
a que stion that goe s something like :
I sn t that a funny way for
”
?
a grown m a n t o spend hi s life
I have a n a n swe r to th at I v e b orrowe d it from my friend a nd
colle ague Arthur C Clarke ; whe n he w a s a ske d why he wrote
“
scie n c e fiction i n prefe re nce t o anything e lse he s aid B e cau se
”
it s the only lite ratu re th a t i s conce rne d with re ality
That m ay be a strange cl a im to m a ke fo r a kind o f writing th at
ha s often concern ed it se lf with bug -eye d m on ste rs fro m the
planet s o f Procyon B ut it s true The gre at re a lity o f o ur time i s
c h a ng e
An d ch a nge i s what science fiction i s all about Othe r
nove li st s po et s e s sayi sts hi stori a n s— they are in the bu sine s s
o f re cording it a s it h appen s S cience fiction write rs are in the
bu sine s s of a nticip ating it before it be come s re a l
The gre at tru th about ch ange is no t only th at it i s h app e ning
no t e ven th at it i s h appening more rapidly th an ever b e fore but
that the ra t e of ch a nge i s acce le r ating all the time The Unite d
St ate s in the ye ar o f it s bicente nnial i s far d iffe rent from the
fl edgling agri cu ltu ral fe de r ation o f 1 7 7 6 The Unite d St ate s at
the time o f it s tricentenni al a hund re d ye ars from now wi ll be
almo st unre cogni z a b le in fund amenta l way s
Not even a science fiction write r c an gue s s at some of tho se
ch ange s but a few are rathe r cle ar : tom orrow s re alitie s the
re alitie s o f the tricente nnia l ye ar
?
Wh a t are the se re alitie s
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B e s nd e s
c o
mu h
th
8
s
s e rv
t fter
nt y b oo k
u gh
an s e v e
mg
a
Pr id nt o f t h S c c F i ctio n W n t o f Am r c a o rgani ti o n M r Po hl
th o r d l ct r r H p b li h d w o rk t oo n m ro to l i t h r tot l m o re
n
d r d of
d do
ti cl
o f y nd p l th i nk p i c
as t he
as a
s,
h un
es
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au
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ar
e
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e s an
ien e
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e
e rs
u
ze ns
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e ssa
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s a
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IS
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a
The first and foremos t is the re a lity of h igh co st energy We
are never ag ain going to see thirty -cent -a-g a llon g a s oline
There i s a good ch a nce that by the tricentenni a l ye a r of 2 0 7 6
that fa ct will h a ve be en accepte d and a b sorb e d into the soci a l
structu re and life will go on a s h appily prod uctively a n d re
w arding l y a s it i s po s sible fo r human life t o be B ut betwe en now
and then the hum a n r a ce i s going t o expe rience a n ene rgy
famine so that the e lectricity y o u u s e to light yo ur home s a nd
the ga solin e y o u u se to d rive a car will all incre a se at le a st
tenfold in c os t— r e al cost ; the e qui valen t o f tod ay s d oll a rs re
-money figure s in fl ation m ay produ ce
a
r
dl
f
e
s
s
o
a
wh
te
ve
r
pl
ay
g
The re simply is n o way t o a void it
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Of course w e have all he ard o f m arv elou s new e nergy source s
which are coming into exi stence and we have bee n promi se d
that one way or a nother they will give u s the energy we ne e d :
nuclear fis sion plant s b re e de r re actors hydrogen fu sion fro m
th e s e a shale o il from th e Rockie s the tar s and s o f Canad a
ge othe rm al powe r from the h eat in side the e a rth wind powe r
wave powe r s un power N one of the se i s a fant a sy exactly ; but
neithe r i s any o ne of the m exactly re al
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I could spend m ore sp ace th an I h ave av a ilab le di scu s sing the
re aliti e s of e ach of the se propo se d ene rgy s ource s but they a ll
se e m to fail in one o f three way s Some fail o n the ground s o f
un a cc ept ab le dam age to the environ ment S ome fail o n the sim
ple arithmeti c of net gain of e ne rgy : if y o u c ount a l l the co st s
you find you are putting m ore e ne rgy into the proce s s th a n y o u
get out a s fue l And s ome fail pu re ly be cau se o f the high c apital
co st s they entail ; they will prod uce plenty o f energy but at a
pric e so high in c on struction that the e nergy mu st be sold for
m a ny time s it s pre sent c o st
For e xamp le : There s n o d oubt that there i s plenty o f e nergy
available from wind powe r Holland pumpe d it s p old ers d ry with
windmills we ste rn farmers watered th e ir c attle with wind
driven pump s ; at Grandp a s Knob V ermont a gene ration ag o
the Smith Putnam wind gene rator wa s rate d at
megaw att s
and su cce s sfully fe d power into the V ermont grid a ll through
World War I I But it i s more than thirty ye ars since Grandpa s
Knob prod u ce d a watt o f electri city be cau se it simply wa s not
competitive with e le ctricity ge ne r ate d fro m che ap o il It will
—
b ec ome competitive again t o be sure b ut no t at 1 9 4 5 price s
and prob ably not at 1 9 7 6 price s
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Th e qu e stion o f net energy return i s cru cial t o any e stim ate of
e n e rgy re source s A million ton s o f O i l i n s i tu i s not the s ame a s
a millio n ton s de live red t o a re fine ry t o be m ad e into g a soline
for your car The re are place s in Ame rica whe re all y o u h ave t o
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do i s pok e a stick in the gro und and stand b a ck ; Oil come s
pouring forth— o r did ; mo st of tho se field s have long since be en
exploite d Saudi Arabian oil lie s much d e ep e r but once the well s
are dug it c om e s out c h e aply and e a sily Oil und e r th e North Se a
i s something e ls e again : th e te chnology require d i s at the very
limit s of s c i e nti fi c knowl e dg e the co st s are immen se and the
un ce rt ainti e s s e riou s And to s ec ure O il fro m the shale rock of
Utah and Colorado m ay w e ll be a lo sing propo sition unde r any
c irc um stanc e s On e ex p e rt s e stimate i s that while it i s per
fe ct l y po s sib le to min e the rock cook it extract keroge n and
di sti l l it into O il pip e it to wh e re it i s ne e d e d a nd re fine it into
c omm e r c ially va lu ab l e prod u ct s the ene rgy r e q uir e ment s are
su c h that for eve ry gallon of ga soline yo u g e t out of th e re fin e ry
y ou m ay w e ll h a ve ex p e nd ed m o re than o ne gallon to get it
th e re
Almo st th e s ame argu m e nts apply to atomi c pow e r— at le a st
of th e kind w e now tak e for granted from light -wat e r fi s sion
r e a c tors It tak e s uranium to fu e l the m There i s a gre at de al o f
uranium in th e w orld but mo st of it i s in ve ry di lute concentra
tion s v e ry ex p e n siv e to e xtra c t Th e m o st prod u c tiv e min e s are
”
“
a l re ady in op e ration and their o utp ut ( it i s ca lled y e llow c ak e )
i s rath e r full y c ommitte d S om e expe rt s s ay that any atomi c
po we r plant c ompl e t e d aft e r 1 9 7 6 will have to fac e an u nce r
taint y a s to wh e th e r yel lo wc ak e wi ll b e availabl e to fu e l it for it s
op e rational life T h e r e are oth e r po s sib l e kind s of fi s sion pow e r
p l ant s but th e oth e r vari e ti e s hav e fl aw s of th e ir o w n not l e a st
o f w hi c h i s th at fe w c an b e o n l in e prod u ce rs in tim e to all e vi at e
th e e n e rgy c run c h
A more s e riou s fl a w i s th e we l l -known d ang e r of plutonium
23 5
23 5 Pu
i s the stuff atomic bomb s are m ad e of ; it i s also highl y
to x i c c h e mi c a lly phy si c a lly p e rilou s in a radio a c tiv e s e n se and
l ong l iv e d T h e w a st e s fro m a bree d e r re a ctor ar e a politi c a l
dan ge r a s soon a s th e sy st e m begin s to ope rat e : th e ri sk of
t e rrori st s a c q uiring th e fe w pound s o f plutonium n ece ss ary to
mak e an atomi c b omb rai s e s prob lem s that h ave n e v e r had to b e
so lve d b e fore starting with th e c ap a c ity for a tin y gro up to
thr e at e n any c it y in th e w orld with the fate O f Hiro shim a Th e
sam e w a st e s re m ain a d ang e r to e v e ry living thing for a p e riod
so l ong that it c an s c ar ce ly b e c ompr e hend e d : a qu arte r o f a
mi ll ion ye ars fifty tim e s as long a s all of recorde d hi story
I t i s th e d ange r to th e e nvironment whi ch finally doom s m o st
o f th e prop o sa ls for m aj or n e w e n e rgy s ource s E v e n if you c an
prot ec t plutonium from hij a c king
eve n if you c an find
w a y s to d e al with poi sonou s b y prod u c t s and c ure th e d am age of
air w at e r and soil pollution
e v e n i f s c i e nce su ccee d s in
sol v in g all th e t ec hn ologi c al prob l e m s and soci e ty ac ce pt s the
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10
utomobile tran sport ation ) prob a b ly the end of l a rge citie s in
locatio ns where the clim ate require s ye ar -round air
conditioning
—
—
And 2 sooner or l ater but the soone r the better an end to
the growth synd rome There i s room fo r argument a s to the
ex a ct d ate when the hum a n r a ce will h av e t o ki ck the growth
h a bit The re i s n ot much room fo r arguing ab out the fact th at
soone r o r l ater it i s inevit a ble There i s n o e sc ape from
G e ne ra l e s s he at curve
I h a ve spe nt a l o t o f sp ace o n thi s one argument beca us e my
con science make s me do it H a lf the po litician s and ne arly all
the bu sine s s le aders are telling u s not to worry I don t b e lieve
we can a fford t o d o that and so I want to get my me s s age acro s s
a s cle arly a s I c a n : WOR R Y Worry that we m ay i n o ur folly go
o n trying to m a ke e a ch y e a r bigger than the ye ar before more
GN P more p e r c apit a we alth more gadget s i n more hom e s
more pe ople more of eve rything Worry m o st of all that th e
people w h o te ll u s not to worry will prevail
B ut I d on t want to p a int too b lack a picture I be lieve with all
my he a rt that we c a n t g o o n having More and More But I
wo uld n ot sugge st for one second that w e can t h ave B ette r
L et s a s sume a condition worse than anyone be li e ve s to b e
true Let s m a ke be lieve that we hav e a s of thi s bicentenni al
ye ar re a ched the ab solute m aximu m of ene rgy production for
all time an d th at effective im mediat e l y the 4 % annu al incre as e
sto ps
Ca n we de al with thi s situ ation witho ut seeing all the c om
?
fort s and j oys of our live s dwind le away
Y o u b et we c a n "F or opene rs prob ab ly half the e n e rgy gene r
a te d in the world i s pure ly wa ste d I f we put our mind s to it — if
there w a s a ny re al incentive to d o it — w e could re d u c e our u se of
e ne rgy 4 % a ye ar The first step s would be a s simp le as turning
off unne ce s sary light s walking o r bicycling on short e rrand s in
nice we athe r in ste a d o f t aking a c ar setting the thermo stat a
coup le o f degre e s lower in cold we ather and high e r in warm We
know we c an d o that mu c h ; we di d it i n the bri e f fl urry of
concern afte r the Arab O il boycott
The next step s are a litt le hard e r but still n ot re ally painful
Whe n y o u buy a new c ar trade d own in stead of up ; sm all e r c ars
u se le s s ga s M ake th e old c ar do a y e ar or two longer ( the
ene rgy involved in building a new comp a ct i s around
kilowatt -hours— a s mu c h as yo u spend in driving it for a ye ar )
De sign new b uildings t o be e ne rgy -con se rv ati v e (gla s s -fronte d
sky scrapers are only po s sib le if y o u co n sid er e nergy so c h e ap as
to be n ot worth worrying ab out ) E nforce the 55 mph sp e e d
limit ( The amount o f ga s u se d to ove rcome air r e si stan ce goe s
a
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12
up a s the cu b e o f the spee d It take s twice a s much at 7 0 mph as
it doe s at 5 5 Reduce the numbe r o f commercia l airline flights t o
fill up the empty seat s— the ave r age load fa ctor i s n o t much over
which me an s that eve ry time 9 0 pe ople g o from C a lifornia
t o H awaii the a irline s burn up a lmo st enough fuel for 1 8 0
Tho se are all simple enough things ; there are a thou s and
othe r me a sure s like them all o f w h ic h can be done at on c e The
re ally big economie s are h a rd er slowe r and more expe n sive
But they are no t at all imp o s sib le and some of them m ay well
turn o ut t o be rather nice
The way we build o u r home s a nd office s i s a con spicuou s wa ste
of huge qu antitie s of e ne rgy a l l by it se lf B uckmin ster F uller
point s o ut that if you we re going to d e sign a m a xim a lly efficient
radiator for the purpo se of getting rid o f h e at what you would
c ome up would likely be a l a rge n umbe r o f ne edle -shape d O bj ect s
pointing into the sky— an exact d e scription o f N ew York City o r
almo st any other l a rg e urb an are a in the wo rld Suppo se s a id
Fuller you put a huge pla sti c d ome ove r a city like New York
At once you cut your he at lo s s i n winte r by something like
Perhap s you d o eve n b ett e r be cau se the right kind of pla stic
would produce a gree nhou se e ffect conve rting the entire city
into a kind of hothou se D oe s thi s me an it wo uld be intolerably
?
hot in summe r No " The moveme nt o f air through the dome
e nte ring at the bottom and venting at the top pro du c e s it s own
c ooling e ffe c t Student s at the University of Scien c e and
Te chnology in Kum a si Gh ana built a 7 0 foot F ulle r dom e fo r
the Accra fairground s : it s natu ral energy free air conditioning
”
“
worked so we ll th e y c alled it the chilling ma chine
C arry it a step farthe r I n sid e the d ome yo u don t want t o
pollute the air ; in fact you want to re fre sh it be cau se it doe sn t
change ve ry rapidly S o yo u pl a nt fl owers tree s vine s garden s ;
the tempe rature i s right the condition s c an be whateve r you
want them t o be there i s no re a son New Yo rk City could n ot
be co me a ve rd a nt b ower
You c an t allow much burning und er the dom e be cau se of air
pollution No gasolin e -d riven c ars ( but s mall e le ctrically driven
one s plu s rapid subway s and troll e y b u se s ) N O oil burne rs fo r
he at or coal fi re d generating plant s for e lect ricity Tho se have
to be out side the d ome B ut mo st of the m a re there alre ady ; land
i s simp ly too valuab le in th e hea rt of a city to wa ste it on ste am
plants L e ave them where th e y are A s n e w o ne s are nee de d
build the m say ne ar the shore s of Long I sland Sound Their
emi s sion s c an be controlle d to elimi nate air po llution— it i s far
e asie r to d o th at with l arge central plant s th an with a thou sand
sm all one s Ge ne rating plant s prod uce another kind o f
—
pollution the rm al pollution ; the wa ste hot wate r le ft afte r the
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13
ste a m ha s driven the la st l ow pre s sure turbine a n d b een c o n
d e n se d Di spo sing of thi s ha s a lway s been a prob le m but it c an
be turned into a n a s set U se th at w ate r t o warm L ong I sl a nd
Sound Fe rtilize it with the ste rili ze d sew a ge of the city it se lf
—
See d it with some kind of food crop mu s se ls a re a good c andi
d ate ; a nd Lo n
g I sl a nd S ound a lone c an grow e nough protein a
ye ar to me et the ne e d s of the whole popul ation of the Unite d
State s
All thi s i s a maj or e ffort t o be sure but not one th at i s out of
re ach The entire program time ly begun and sp re ad o ut ov e r a
period of ye ars would co st not a gre at de al mo re th a n w e now
spe nd in building an d reb uild ing citie s like New York as a m at
te r o f regular routine And the be ne fit s would be c on side rable
The d ollar saving would be gre at The ene rgy saving gre ate r
still And the ameniti e s o f the city wo uld be o nce and for all
re stored
In fact it i s n o t unre a sonab le t o imagin e that the city could
be come more attractive than the c ountry sid e so that s u b u rb a
nite s would ye a rn to re migr ate l e aving the pave d and int e m p
e rat e communitie s of Conne cticut and We st c he ste r for the cle an
air and ve rd a nt greene ry of Time s Squ are and H arle m
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L ow -e ne rgy te chnology d oe s not have to be ba d te c hnology
The tran si stori z e d ste re o playing in the ba ckgroun d a s I writ e
c o st s no mor e th an the Atwate r Kent I li st e ned to as a c hild
draws far le s s curr e nt and prod uce s an incomp arably ri c h e r
?
—
D
O
o
u
sound
want gadget s
p e rso nali zed c omput e rs 3 D TV
y
r e cordings in st ant communi c ation s to anywh e re in th e world
?
from where ve r you happ e n to b e I promi s e you all of th e m long
be fore the tricentennial along with a thou sand other inv e n
tion s it ha s n ot yet occurre d to u s t o want
I pro mi se yo u a gr e at d e al m ore than that wh e th e r we be
energy -poor or no t What I do not promi s e i s that all of the n e w
things we will fi nd we c an t liv e without will b e for our good
e ithe r in m ateri al ways or in moral
Wh at wo uld yo u think for example of a litt le gadget that you
c ould c arry i n yo ur pock e t no bigger th an a pock e t wat c h th at
could give you the e q u iv al ant of a shot of he ro in j u st by pu sh
?
ing a button
That i s not a ce ntury away The technology alre ady exi st s
”
“
The re are ce rtain are as of the b rain c all e d p le a sure c ent e rs
If you in se rt a fine platinum e le ctrode into the pl e a sure cente r
and stimulate it with a tiny el e ctri c cu rren t— a few
—
milli amp ere s the subj e ct re ceive s a sen sation of pure ple a
sure If you wire a laboratory anim al in thi s way a white rat or
a guine a pig and put it in a c age with a s w it c h the anim al c an
operate t o give him the j olt o f j o y he will le arn to pu sh that
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14
a gain
switch H aving pu shed it once he wi ll g o on pu shing
and again ; he will pu sh the switch over a nd ove r with
singleminde d persi stence a lmo st ob liviou s t o food o r drink o r
the charm s of fem a le a nim a ls until he fa lls a sle ep in e x h au s
tion and w ake s to pu sh it some more H um a n subj e cts report
the sen sation a s being gre at plea sure ; s o fa r there h a ve be e n
very few all person s who have h a d br a in surge ry for some other
re ason B ut the in stall ation o f the electrode it self nee d not
require m aj or s urgery The exte rn a l end o f the electrode could
be conce ale d be ne ath the scalp A pocket battery set c ould pro
vide the current by ind uction : touch the j oy m a chine to the
he a d pu sh the button and experience a j olt o f ple a sure any
time at all Ap art from the original in st allation it i s almo st fre e
It doe s not cau se phy siologic a l a ddiction in fa ct it i s hard t o see
any adverse con sequence s at a l l s hort of the m oral a n d char a c
ter aspe c t s
More than th a t It i s n ot only ple a sure c enters th at c an be
stimulated A tiny e lectric a l cu rrent applie d t o othe r p art s o f
the brain prod u c e s quite different effect s At Yale Dr Jo se
De lgado ha s wire d the brain of a bull t o a radio re ce iver s o th at
a person can persu ad e the bull to charge fifty y a rd s away
De lgad o pu she s a button on hi s tran smitte r a nd the bull h a lt s in
mid charg e and begin s t o graz e Or the oppo site Scienti sts have
not yet mappe d all the a re a s of the brain but it se em s ce rt ain
that th e key c an be found to excite or s uppre s s alm o st any kind
of b e havior by e l ec tric al stimulation C an a m an be wire d to
?
b e come an a s sa ssin Can a whole army be wire d t o di sregard the
?
ins tin c t for s elf pres erv ation C an any group of people— fa ctory
workers o r c oncentration c amp inm at e s— b e wire d to dismi s s
?
fatigue and pain and go on working till th e y die V ery po s sibly
y e s to all of the m
All of thi s i s ve ry re a l ; but even i f it were not the o pp o r
t u nit ie s to control hum an beh a vior exi st in other way s : B F
Skinn e r s beh avior modi fic ati on ope rant conditioning what
eve r
It seem s to me that the que stion s rai se d by be havior control
bring u s fac e to fa c e with o ne o f the gre ate st mor a l prob lem s of
the next ce ntury a prob le m that hum anity ha s never h a d t o
face be for e Like mo st moral prob lem s it will b e upon u s before
we are re ady for it There are tho se who would put a stop to thi s
sort of re s e arch for j u st th at re a son b ec au se they do n o t see
how to an swe r the que stion s it rai se s B ut the te c hnology it se lf
i s value free Te chnology i s only a tool like a hamme r It c an be
u se d to build a hou se o r t o be at some one s b rain s in It i s the
way in which it i s u se d that give s it it s moral qu ali ty for go od or
for evil ; and prob ab ly the h ard e st que stion of all i s to know
whi c h i s whi c h
it —
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15
Freeing a slave from p a in so th at he can work him self to de ath
fo r you i s obviou sly E vi l Fre eing a te rmina l c a nce r p atie nt
from p a in so that he can live out hi s la st month s productive ly
and in pe a ce it s eem s to me i s equ ally obviou sly Good U nfo r
t u n at e l y the t w o aspect s co me a s a set ; if we buy o ne we get the
othe r a s we ll And we also get all the int e rme diate a spe ct s
whe re the morality i s fa r from cle ar
F or a n even more abr a sive moral que stion let u s look at wh a t
the biologic al science s h a ve in store for u s between now and the
tricentennial
Mo st o f u s would agre e that to s a ve human life by me a n s of an
organ tr a n splant is a good thing
Organ tran sp lant s of course h appe n now B ut they don t
happen a s a n atural thing to eve ryb ody ; million s of p e opl e still
die be cau se of the failu re of a vit al organ without even an
atte mpt at a tran splant The re are m any re a son s for thi s For
tran splant s d on t a lway s work The body ofte n rej e c t s
o ne
th e m be cau se their c hemi stry i s not th e same a s it s own e x cept
in the c a se of id entical twin s For another sp ar e p art s are
scarce Y o u c annot tran splant a he art to s av e a life unle ss some
othe r person ha s l o s t a life— and convenient ly done it in su c h a
way a s to le ave the he art fun c tio ning and int act
B ut biology m ay give u s a way t o grow sp are part s The
”
“
proce du re i s c a lle d cloning
A clone i s an exact genetic copy of an organi sm Twenty y e ars
ago some people at Ann Arbo r Mi chigan suc cee de d in c loning a
c arrot Th at i s they c ut o ut a pi ec e o f a c arrot tre ate d it che mi
c ally and mad e it grow an exact duplicat e of it se lf A few ye ars
afte r that so me p e ople at Oxford E nglan d c lone d a frog They
took a s amp le of ti s sue from a d e ad frog and by variou s m anipu
l at io n s they m ade another frog which wa s an exact ge neti c copy
of the de a d one : an id entical twin c onceive d an d b orn after the
first frog wa s d ea d
N ow no o ne h a s yet clone d a hum an be ing B ut it s in th e
c ard s I f w e want e d to d o it all we would n e e d to d o to bring it
about would b e to m ake it the sort o f nation al go al that th e
atomi c bomb and the sp a c e program wer e : a M anhatt an Proj e c t
sort of e ffort though prob ab ly o n a c on sid erab ly s m aller and
che ape r scal e We c ould be pretty sure of m aking it a re ality
within a few ye ars— a s sure a s we were of succe s s with the bomb
and the sp ac e program at any rat e E ven without such a proj
ect it will prob ably c o me about anyway and long be fore the
tricent e nnial
?
What wo uld thi s me an
For open e rs it would m e an a good pro sp e c t of va stly long e r
life in ne arly pe rfe ct he alth a n d strengt h for any hum an being
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16
,
could take a dv a ntage of it ( R e a lly for a ny hum an being
who could a fford the doubtle s s ve ry high d oll a r price )
The first thing to d o i s give up a s a mple o f ti s sue from your
own body It doe s no t need to be ve ry m uch ; the a mount your
doctor t ake s fo r a biop sy would be a mp le a nd pe rh ap s it could
be no m ore th a n the few ce lls y o u scr a pe off your skin when y o u
scr atch a n itch ( E ve ry ce ll o f the body cont a in s the complete
genetic code fo r the whole body finge rs toe s br ain and a ll )
Prob a bly the s ample wo uld be i mpl a nte d i n the nucleu s o f a
human ovum ( There are plenty o f tho se around ; eve ry fe male
hum an produce s and di sc a rd s four o r five hund re d in he r life ) It
might be fe rtiliz e d p arthenogenetic a lly ( che mi c a lly o r phy si
cally ) o r by a rtifici a l in semin ation u sing you r o w n don ate d
spe rm ( If you are a woman the e a sy se cond choice won t work
but the first rem ain s a good po s sibility ) The emb ryo come s to
te rm either in a borrowe d h um a n ute ru s o r in a te sttube It i s
”
“
born as an exact copy of what you were at birth an i dentic al
—
Y
twin
say at le a st
o u allow it t o grow up to roughly adult size
the age of pube rty And there it i s a living sto rehou se o f sp are
p art s fo r you Yo ur body would n ot rej ect the p a rt s be c au se
there i s n o diff eren c e between it s p a rt s an d your o w n
Of course the re i s one prob lem I f you nee d a liver say and
take it from your clone then the clone doe sn t h ave one It
would die It might even refu se to give it s live r to you
It might refu se
if it had the powe r to m a ke deci sion s B ut
suppo se at the ve ry beginning y o u inhibite d the d evelopment of
it s brain Suppo se y o u kept it a s a mind le s s c o n s c io u s ne s s l e s s
organi sm perh a p s supp orte d o n a he art lung m achine all
”
“
through it s exi stence Y o u nee dn t be crue l to it I f you
thought it might be s uffering pain , o r ev endi sco mfort in spite
of it s mind le s s state y o u cou ld give it a nerve block either
r
surgi c ally o by e lec t rical stimulation or by trickle fee ding it
som e sort of super-novo c aine Y o u could keep th at fre sh me at in
storage pe rh a p s a l l yo ur life And if the cloned sp are -p arts sup
ply showed sign s O f we aring o ut you could alway s don ate
another scrap of ti s sue and start another clone
who
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Doe s thi s se em outlandi sh It ha s bee n sugge ste d and not
j u st by s c ience fictio n writers E ve n more Suppo se y o u are a
wom an and you want a child but don t p articularly c are for the
troub le of childbe aring Your clone can have the child for y o u :
conceive it thro ugh a rti fi c ial in se min ation bring it to term and
de live r it When it i s born you c an pick the baby up and t ake it
home I n every biologi cal sen se it i s your ow n child No fu s s
mu s s or bothe r
fo r y o u
What it wo uld b e fo r the clone i s of co urse something e l se
ag a in
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17
I n thi s short e s s ay I c a nnot hop e t o exhau st the spe ctrum of
po s sibilitie s th at l ay betwe en o urse lve s and the tricentenni al I
h a ve not s aid a word a bout intelligent m a chine s ( B ut the be st
con sen su s o f expe rt opinion i s that we will h a ve m a chine s c ap a
ble o f s coring 1 5 0 o r bette r on a st a nd a rd IQ te st before the end
— whi ch i s t o say m achine s a s sm a rt a s a hum an
o f thi s century
geniu s by the ex a ct st a nd ard s we u se t o me a sure hum an
genius ) I h a ve not touche d on space exploration o r coloni z ation
( B ut Ge r a rd K O N e il l at Princeton h a s te stifie d before c o n
gre s s o n the fe a sibility o f e stab li shing sp a ce citie s o f a hund re d
thou sand popul ation o r more at wh a t i s called the L 5 point in
the orbit o f the m oon ) I h a ve only hinte d at the bright hope s for
new kind s of agriculture and the almo st ce rt ain di sa sters that
i s prob a bly t o o late to avoid for s ome part s of the e cology ( Have
we polluted at le a st p a rt o f o u r oce an s pa st the point O f no
?
return N o o ne know s fo r s ure but so me s u spe ct it i s so )
S O at th e en d of this es s ay l e t m e c o nf es s t h e t ru t h a b o u t
p re d i c t i ng t h e fu tu re : i t c anno t b e d on e e xc ep t in t h e m o s t l i m i t ed
of w a y s wi t h a ny e xa c tn es s b e c au s e t h e a c t of p re di c t i o n i t s e lf
c a n c ha ng e t h e c o u rs e of ev e nt s Pre diction s of exce s s popu lation
growth have turne d o ut p a rtly wrong and p art o f the re a son for
that i s that a s pe ople be came aw are o f predi cti on s they v o l u n
t a ril y limite d the si z e o f their fa milie s
There i s a m ore fun d ame ntal prob le m As D e nni s G ab o r s ay s
”
“
Yo u cannot pre dict the future Y o u c an only inve nt it It i s not
difficult t o se e what i s p o s s i b l e at le a st within limit s B ut to
c onve rt what i s po s sib le into what i s re al req uire s an a c t of will
We wo uld no t h ave lande d a m an on the M oon in th e 1 9 6 0 s if it
had not been for th e fact that John F Ke nnedy shopping for a
maj or e v e nt t o m ark what he hope d would be hi s second te rm in
O ffi c e m ade the deci sion to allocate the re so urce s t o m ake it
happen The re cipe fo r the future is on e p art inerti a one part
opportunity and three p art s d eci si on If enough indivi du als
m ake the person al de ci sion t o con se rve ene rgy we will c on s e rve
ene rgy If a large gove rnment m ake s the po liti c al d eci si o n to
build Gerard O N e ill s sp a c e co lonie s we will h ave a c ity o f
hum a n beings in orbit around the e arth
To sp e ak about the tricentenni a l o f the Unite d St ate s at all
re quire s a ce rtain a c t of faith How do we know there will b e a
?
United St ate s in the ye a r 2 07 6 AD
I don t me a n to sugge st any p a rticular di sa ster that might
befall u s as a nation ( although I c ould think o f half a doz en re al
po s sibilitie s in five minute s i f a ske d ) B ut on actu a ri al ground s
alone the life -sp an of world powe rs i s n ot ve ry r e a s suring We
tend to think of o ur Ame rican n ation a s bra sh puppyi sh ado
l e s c e nt ; b ut a ctu ally o ur c ountry i s alre ady rather old a s world
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18
A me ric a D e c ad e nt ?
Is
Pete r L B e rge r
.
Ph
,
D
.
.
A few ye ars a fte r World War I I a c a u sti c E urope a n critic
ob s erve d th at Ame ric a skipping a ll interme di a te st age s
see me d t o be moving directly from a dole sce nce t o senility He
m ainly had Ame ric a n lite ratu re i n mind which at that time
began to fl ouri sh a n unprece dente d e ffl o re sce nc e o f gloom a nd
pe s simi sm I don t know wh at thi s critic would s ay a bout
Ame ric a tod ay (in fact I ve forgotten w h o h e wa s ) but I doubt
whethe r he would feel con strained to revi se hi s a s se s sment I f
the oppo site o f se nility i s youthful vigor it i s rather difficult t o
see contempor a ry Ame rica a s vigorou s Ind ee d a s the Unite d
St ate s ce lebrate s it s 2 0 0t h a nnivers ary it i s h a rd t o re si st the
ide a th at here i s a n ation in a st ate of a dv a nce d de cline
A vigorou s n ation o ne would s ay i s o ne that h a s con fidence in
it se lf and it s future working h ard willing t o m ake s acri fice s
The se are characte ri stic s that are no t re a di ly applied t o
Ame ric a tod ay E ve ry m aj or in stitution o f the society h a s
und ergone severe cri se s of confid ence in the l a st de cade the
mo st se riou s cri si s being experience d by the politic a l order o n
which the society w a s pre sume d to be re sting The cultural e lite
appe ars to be profoundly alie nate d from the tradition al etho s Of
the society and it i s succe s sfully diffu sing thi s alien ati on
thro ugh the e ducational and communi c ation s sy ste m s which it
dominate s The bu sine s s e lite see m s to b e profoundly de
morali z e d while the politician s brandi sh mo stly rhetoric th at
wa s exciting forty or fifty ye a rs ag o The birth rate i s d eclining
”
“
Crime i s d ram a tically ri sing The Prote stant ethic of hard
work and pro ductivity i s b eing challenge d by a sharply contrary
f
ethi c o se lf re ali z ation and in stant gratificati on It i s even
que stionable what p rO p o rt iO fl Of t h e popul a tio n would be willing
to d efend it se lf if att acke d with armed force Element s in the
”
“
society th at h ave a co mmitme nt to the old vigor ou s valu e s
(the mi lit ary i s one s uch ele me nt ) fi nd them se lve s und erst a nd
ably i n a p sychological stage of siege The sugge stion then
that Ame rica m ay h ave re ache d an age Of decadence i s not
taken out o f thin air ; it h a s d ep re s singly empiric a l refere nts
Neve rthe le s s the i de a of de cad ence ha s it s prob lem s Fo r o ne
thing tho s e e mploying it u navoid ab ly se le c t c e rt ain fact s over
othe rs : T hu s some one arguing a ga i n s t the s ugge stion th at
Ame ri c a i s d ecadent co uld cite the fact s of the undimini she d
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Pe t r L B rg r i Pr of or of S ociol ogy t R tg r U ni r ity d m m b r of t h Gr d t F c lty o f
m bl i
Th P c i
t h N w Sc h ool fo r S oc i l Re e r c h H p b l ic t io n i c l d Th N o i
f S o l mn A
nd
i t ti o to S oc i o l o y A H m
Vi w n A R m o f Ang l Th S c d C n opy I
i ti c P
p ct i
Th S oc i l Con t cti o
rtic l for d o rtme t of
m ro
f R li ty D r B r g r l o h w r itt
prof ion l j o rn l nd i in d m nd n th o r d l e ct r r
e
e
Ou s
e
a
s
,
ro
s ru
a
e ss
u
a
u
s
e s,
n
a s a
a
e
s
a re
.
e
u
is
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ea
o
u
a
e ss
s
e
e
20
e
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a
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productivity of the economic sy stem o r o f the p re sence in the
society o f large numbe rs o f pe op le app a rently u ntouched by the
crisis of confidence ( people s ay who not only d o not re a d the N ew
Yo rk Ti m e s but have never he a rd o f it ) Fo r a nother thing
notion s o f societ a l d ecline a re very O ften b a se d on highly di s
t o rt e d recolle ction s o f a p a st in which suppo sedly life w a s s o
much bette r : Thu s the re i s a go od ch a nce that ev e ry genera
tion in history s aw it s o w n period a s o ne of decline looking
b a ckward t o a n a llegedly bette r p a st be it in their o w n yo uth o r
in the ag e of p a re nt s o r gr a ndp a rent s More import antly
tho ugh the i de a of dec a d ence come s o ut O f a spe ci fic philo sophy
This c a n be state d quite simply : The period s of
o f hi story
hum an history are understood in ana logy t o the cycle s of na
ture as a s equence o f birth growt h d ecline a nd de ath :
”
”
“
“
s ocietie s then c a n be c ategorize d a s yo ung
m ature o r
”
“
old with appropri a te tr a it s in e a ch pha se Thi s view o f hi story
d ate s back t o a ncie nt Greece It w a s cla s sic a lly st ate d by
“
Thucydide s whe n he claime d that it i s t he n ature of a ll things
”
Thi s view of hi st ory wa s sharply
t o grow a s we ll a s t o d ecay
ch allenge d
by
a
long
line
Chri stian
think e rs
of
beginning with Augustine w h o s aw his tory not a s a s eri e s
of re curring cycle s but a s a line moving tow ar d fulfilment in the
Kingdom of G o d The O ld view w a s t a ken up again by a numbe r
of mode rn thinkers ve ry i mport a ntly by F rie drich Niet z sche in
the 1 9th century and by O sw a ld Spe ngler a n d Arn old Toynbe e
in the 2 0t h
Thi s i s obviou sly n o t the p l a ce to di scu s s the p hilo sophic al and
the ological i s sue s involve d The re i s good re a son however to be
skeptical abo ut the afore mention e d view on th e ground s of his
t o ric al and so ci al s cien ce S o c i e tie s are n o t organism s and to
think of them in biological an al ogie s c an be very misleading
And if o ne looks m ore clo se ly at any hi storical pe riod the puta
“
tive pha se s seem quite dubiou s When d oe s a society stop grow
”
”?
“
ing and att a in the statu s of m aturity
Ju st when doe s a
”?
“
”?
“
society begin to be old When c an it be s aid to h a ve die d In
the develop me nt o f mod e rn hi storical scholarship the se que s
tions wer e en dl e s sly de b ated in t h e cas e of ancient R ome
endle ss ly and in the fin al an alys is fruitles s ly It always com e s
as a shock when one re a d s source s which in one s own scheme o f
”
“
”
“
pe riodi z ation fa ll in the growth o r yo ung p h a se of a p art ic u
l a r society only t o come upon authors fro m th a t pe ri od who look
b ack longingly to an e arlie r time when t he y thought th at their
“
”
s ociety was
young
Depending on whi c h contemporary
source s one relies u pon the age of Juliu s C ae s ar s ay was one of
undimini shed youthful vigor of m ature powe r o r of b eginning
“
dec adence Nor i s o ne better o ff w h e n o ne look s to the begin
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21
“
”
”
ning o r the e nd o f R om a n hi story The origin s o f Rome a re
lo st in myth s— them selve s of unce rtain ag e And there a re way s
”
“
of a rguing th a t Rome neve r end e d at a ll
Socio logical theory sugge st s that eve ry hum a n society i s a
highly pre c a riou s con stru ction It i s an intric ate network of
a ssumption s a nd proce dure s which only acquire s the appe ar
a nce of st a bility of pe rm a ne nce be c a u se it s members co me to
t ake it for grante d Thi s take n -fo r-g ra nt e d ne s s i s the child of
habit H a bit s ch a nge o r a re forced to change sometime s ab
ru pt l y Anyone who ha s lived through period s of r apid so c i al
change ( a nd th at i s m any peop le i n our own time ) can te stify to
a n expe rience th a t involve s a retro sp e ctive in sight : If in st it u
tion s could collap se o r be tr a n sforme d s o quickly then the e ar
lier perception o f their stability mu st have be en a n i llu sion Thi s
in sight i s e s se nti ally corre ct ; it i s go od socio logy B ut then the
whole organic an alogy n o lon ge r m ake s s en se : Societie s d o not
grow m ature and de cline Alway s even i n s t a tu n a s c e nd i they
a re o n the brink of di s solution The wonder i s not th at a society
“
”
end s at a given mome nt but th at it kept going fo r a s long a s it
did
All th e s ame the concept o f de cade nce ha s a certain utility It
i s c ap ab le of being ab stracted from the a foreme ntione d V iew of
hi story a nd being u se d a s a simp ly de scriptive c ategory a s
follow s : I t i s p o s s i b l e t o sp e a k of d e c a d en c e w h en t h e s y m b ol s
t h a t s u s t a i n a s o ci e t y l o s e p l a u s i bi li ty P u t d iff e re n t ly a s o c i e t y
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m ay b e s a i d t o b e d e c a d e n t w h en i t s u n d e rly i ng v a lu e s b e c o m e
Only by h aving com mon symbols
e mp t y
ho l l ow e d o u t
.
,
l angu age cognitiv e structure s norm s — c an a group of h um an
be ings con stitute a society Mo re spe c i fi c ally a society i s he ld
together by an order of v a lue s which provid e in divi du a l me an
ing and collective m oral guid ance for it s memb ers No amount of
m ate ri a l powe r o r we a lth by it self c an hold a s ociety togethe r
Only commo n symb ol s value s can do th at B ut symb ol s and
value s c a nnot exi st by them se lve s ap art fro m the con sciou s
ne s s of living hum an beings Th at i s symb ol s and value s mu st
be p l au s i b l e : People mu st con sid er the m to re fer t o re ality and
t o h ave moral authority When th i s i s no longe rthe c a se when
the societal symb oli sm i s wid e ly pe rc e l v e d to be unre al and
m orally n on -binding the n the in stitution s thu s symb oli ze d b e
come very fragile inde ed To be s ure the O ld symb ols may still
be u sed a s o n ce re moni a l occa sion s but they will n o t long e r b e
“
take n se riou sly They m ay eve n quite lite rally have be com e a
”
j oke And th at pre ci sely i s de cad ence
I f d e cadence i s understo od in thi s way r ather than in term s O f
”
“
the organic analogy of a s ociety getting old the re i s much in
the pre sent Americ a n situ ation th at see m s to fit the concept
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22
“
One m ay begin by looking at what M a rxi st s c a ll the infra st ru c
”
—
ture of th e society at its econ omi c arr angements T o wh at
extent the Americ a n economic sy stem tod ay c a n still be de
scribed a s c apit a li sm i s perh ap s debat a ble We a re appro a ching
the point whe re one h a lf o f the gro s s n ation a l prod uct i s gene r
ate d by gove rnment a nd we h a ve alre a dy re a che d the point
where o ne half o f the population re ceive s some sort o f govern
ment che que every month an d tho se p e ople w h o are n o t yet o n
this lu c ky list seem rem arkably unreluctant to get o n it As to
”
“
th e s ector of the e conomy th at w e c all private it i s h e a vily
organi z ed in gigantic corporation s with an inveterate lu st fo r
monopoly control and pe rme ated by an incre asingly o m nipre
sent c omplex of regul atory mech a nis ms operate d by th e g o v
This i s no t ex a ctly the kind o f economy th at Ad am
e rnm e nt
Smith was writing about Still if one looks u pon econ omi c sys
tems as ranging b etween a pol e of untramm elled m arket forces
and a pole of all -embracing politic al allocation and if o ne calls
th e first pol e capitalism and the s e cond so ci alis m then ce rt ain ly
Am eri ca i s clos er to the first th an to the s e cond I n this rel ative
sense e spe ci ally as comp are d with most o f the re st of th e con
temporary world Americ a i s still a b astion of capitali sm
Yet the re h as bee n a m arked de cline in the e ste e m in which
capit ali sm i s held by the Americ a n pe op le or at le a st by large
s e gment s of the l atter The re i s a wide spre ad antagoni sm to th e
bu sine s sm an and all he repre sent s Pro fit ha s b e com e a dirty
word to m any Corporations are w id e ly p e r c eiv e d as n e ar
crimin al or outrightly c rimin al con spiracie s b e nt upon c h e at
ing the pub lic de stroying the envi ro nment and spre ading
tyranny abro ad N ow let it be quickly s aid that o f course there
i s a me a sure o f re ality in the se negative pe rception s Nor i s thi s
something new : Ameri c an bu sine s s h a s bee n guilty o f quite
stupendou s mi sd ee d s in t he p a st What h a s change d from e ar
lier period s of A me rican hi story i s that m a ny now perceive
the se misd ee d s as con stituting the ve ry e s sence of the capitali st
sy stem while at the same time the empiric a l a chievements o f
the system are overlooked with d ete rmination The se a chieve
me nt s are stupendou s t o o : The mo st prod uctive e cono my in the
hi story of m ankind An unp ar a llelled gener ation o f we alth
which h a s roughly d o u b l e d the stand a rd of living of Ame ric an s
i n c lu di ng tho se in the lowe r strat a of the population ev e ry
g en e ra t i o n sin c e the turn of the ce ntury A highly e quit able
di stribution of this we alth if the stand ard of c o m p a rl so n i s
other e mpiri c al s ocietie s rathe r than an ab stra ct i de al o f e qu al
ity The coexi stence o f thi s me a sure of e cono mic productivity
with political in stitution s fo ste ring individua l free d om
Ne arly all Ame ric a n s bene fit from thi s e c ono mic sy stem every
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23
d ay o f their live s Curiou sly the gre ate st di s a ffection from the
sy stem i s found tod ay a mong it s mo st p a mpere d bene fici a rie s in
the upp er midd le cl a ss Thi s i s de c a dent E ven m ore s o i s the
re m arkable in ability o f the bu sine s s cl a s s t o defend it self
ag ain st it s adve rsarie s Sometime s the se day s it seem s as if
even the c a pit ali sts h ave lo st their be lief in c a pit a li sm
“
”
Clo se ly re l ate d t o thi s i s the hollowing o ut o f b ro ader cul
tural symbol s Prominent among the se are the value s c o m
“
m o nl y c alled ( since the work o f Max Weber) the Prote stant
”
ethic I t i s pre ci s ely this ethic ( as Weber sh owed ) th at h as b een
very in strument a l in bringing a bout m od ern capit ali sm e spe
c i a ll y in Americ a It fo ste re d vi rtue s such a s hard work s a ving
discipline individual se lf re li an ce and the urge toward
a c hieveme nt Now there i s a long tradition in we stern coun
trie s that h as sto od in opp o sition t o thi s value sy ste m which it
”
“
denigrated a s b ourge oi s cu lture Thi s tradition ( Lione l Tril
”
“
ling c alled it the adve rsary culture ) ha s be en p articularly
strong in the inte lle ctu a l e lite which pride d it self o n h a ving
value s s uppo sedly more civili ze d and m ore hum ane th an tho se
of the bourge oi sie The l atter wa s pe rceived a s a m oney
grubbing group devoid of an und erstanding o f the higher value s
of culture Sinclair L ewi s h a s a s it were codi fie d the Ame ric an
version of thi s negative perception in hi s figure o f B abbitt ; H L
”
“
Me ncken coine d the term b o o b o i se rie for the cla s s thu s d e nig
rate d T O an extent then there i s nothing new in all of thi s
What h a s happened since World W a r I I h owever i s th at mu ch
large r numbe rs o f pe ople have c o me t o con sid er the m se lve s p art
”
“
of the cultural elite — a nd thu s O ppo se d to bourgeoi s culture
Thi s O f co urse i s the re sult o f the much gre ate r acce s sibility of
college education also of the e lite in fl u e nce s diffu sed more
wide ly th a n eve r before through the m as s me dia of c o m m u nic a
tion
”
“
I n con sequence the Prote stant ethic h a s b een under m a s
sive as s a ult in recent ye ars with the a s sault reaching a ce rtain
cre scendo i n the l a te l 9 6 0 s The va lue of hard work i s put down
as dehum ani zing even p athological S aving i s but another a s
“
”
ip s o f a c t o fru strating and de
pe ct o f de laye d grati fication
structive of the cre ative impu lse Di scipline i s identi fie d with
“
”
repre s sion
Again st the se old v a lue s a new thoroughly
hed oni stic ethic i s prop agate d The he a lthy life i s one that i s
”
“
live d now d edicated t o the unre strained expre s sion of se lf
I ndividuali sm too h a s come un de r att ack e sp eci ally in it s com
pe t it iv e a spe ct and achieve me nt i s n o w wid ely perceive d as a
”
“
c apitulation t o the rat race
Thi s bro ad sid e att a ck on the
value s o f the midd le cla s s co me to a climax of course in the
s o c alle d co unte r -culture It would be an e rror though to see it
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24
,
,
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being limited t o the latter C ontr a ry to the gre at expect a
tion s of a few ye ars ag o the counte r -culture h a s be come a
“
”
m a rgin a l phenomenon : Americ a as a whole di d n o t green
”
“
Still it ha s be come gre ener Indee d part of the re a son th a t
”
“
the as s a ult o n Midd le Ame rica h a s beco me mo re quiet i s th at
it h a s alre a dy be en s o succe s sful The old value s the old moral
ity are very much on the defen sive tod ay Pe ople who continue
”
“
to live by the Prote stant ethic in m a ny place s tod a y are more
”
“
than a little a shamed O f their o w n suppo sed b ackward o r
”
“
uptight way o f life
V alue ch ange o f course i s not ne ce s sarily a sign of d ecadence
One could even argue that such change i s c ond ucive to the
vitality and the surviva l c ap acity of a society B ut it i s the
spe cific character of the c h a ng e that m u st be looke d at Put
simply wh at i s c hanging are tho se va lue s upon which th e pro
d u c t iv it y of the society depend s Without re a dine s s for work
di scip line and a me a sure at le a st o f se lf d enia l n o society c an
look forward to much of a future
B ut the mo st alarming e ro sion o f plau sibility h a s be e n taking
place in the politi c al sphere Th e Ame rican nation i s unu su al in
that it ha s b e en from the beginning ba s e d exp li c itly on a
sp e ci fic po liti c al c re e d which wa s incorp orate d in the docu
m e nt s ( mo st notably of course the con stitution ) e merging from
th e struggl e for n ational indep e nd en ce During th e la st d e c ade
thi s c re e d h a s undergone the sev e re st shock s The raci al cri si s
the V ietnam war and Watergate m ark the st age s of thi s ero sion
but i s i s by no me an s cl e ar th at th e re are not m ore st age s ah e ad
No politi c al ord e r can surviv e many s uch sho c ks le a st o f all a
democratic on e When all i s s ai d and done a political ord e r c a n
re st on only two found ation s— con s e n su s and c oe r c ion : a s c on
sen su s wane s re lian c e o n coerci on incre a se s mu st in c re a s e Or
of course the politi c al orde rst art s to fall ap a rt It i s sob e ring to
re call that the t wo gre ate st r e volution s of m od ern time s the
F re n c h and the Ru s si an we re each pre ce d e d by s c an d als that
led imp ort ant s e gment s of the p e ople to conclud e that the re was
in e radicable corruption at the ve ry he art o f power— the affair of
the que en s ne cklace in F ran c e and the R a sputin affair in Ru s
sia The rh e tori c and the cere moniali sm o f the po litic al order
”
“
c an then go on for a whi le longer b ut it ha s be come empty
devoid of inner me aning or convi ction It wo uld be h ard to
a s se s s how far the ero sion of American political symb ol s h as
gone in the s ame dire ction The re c an be n o qu e stion but th at it
has go ne a long way from th e e arly 1 9 6 0 s when for in st an c e
Pre sid e nt Kenne dy could still inaugurate his admini stration
with an un am biguo us and virtu ally unch allenged appe al to th e
vi rtu es of p atriotism an d d emocra c y
as
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25
All the se phenomen a h a ve m ultiple cau se s all of which
though are ultim ate ly rel ate d t o the proce s s of m oderniz ation
A mod ern society by it s very n ature i mpo se s strain s on it s
symbol sy ste m The re a son s fo r thi s c a nnot be pursue d here ;
suffice it to say th at there i s nothing my ste riou s ab out thi s but
th at the explan ation mu st be sought in the e mpiric a lly av a i l
able cha racter O f mod ern in stitution s Ame rican society re late s
to mod erniz ation in a ve ry sp e cial way Tal c ott Parson s h as
“
”
called Americ a t h e le ad society Thi s i s by n o m e an s a state
me nt o f n ation al pride n o t e ven a po sitive va lu e j udgm e nt It
simply me an s that a n umbe r o f modernizing pro ce s se s h ave
gone fu rthe r in Ame rica th a n anywhere else Among the se are
s oci a l mobility plur a li sm cult ur a l integration through m a ss
communic ation s and rapi dly ri sing living st and ard s It i s not
surpri sing in th at c a se t hat the strain s brought on by mod er
ni z at i o n s hould h ave a parti c u l ar virulen c e in Ame ric a One
other factor should at le a st b e mentioned he re Am e ri c an soci
ety ha s alway s give n a ve ry prominent pla c e to r e ligion and
re ligiou s in stitution s Only re ce nt ly h a s Am e rica come to fee l
the imp act o f an ove rt secul a ri z ation (which in oth e r we stern
countrie s h a s bee n a concomit ant o f mod erni z ation for a much
longer time ) It i s very like ly th at thi s fa ct i s c lo se ly re lat e d to
the cri si s in th e plau sibility o f symbol s and v a lu e s Re ligi on
more than anything e l se provide s the ce ment of be li e f holding a
society togeth e r ; i f thi s c ement i s s udd enly so ften e d th e e ffe ct s
on the s ociet al e di fi c e c an be dram atic
It i s i mpo rtant to re call in thi s conne ction th at Ame ric a i s a
ve ry big and c omplex c ountry It i s dangerou s th e refore to
generali ze a bout it I n the m atte r under di s c u s sion h e re th e re
are gre at diffe re nce s between the metropolitan ar e as and the
re st of the country a s also betwe en variou s larger r e gion s T hu s
“
”
the Prote stant ethic m ay sti ll be very m u c h alive in some
place s while it i s i n full di sarray in others and so on down the
line with the other deve lop m e nt s di scu s sed ab ove Put diffe r
ently while so me o f America m ay i nd ee d be c a lle d de c adent
other p art s o f the country and o f the popu lation m ay still be
re lative ly un affecte d C aution in inte rpretat ion th e n i s v e ry
mu c h indicate d Ne v e rthe le s s there c a n be little doubt about
the re ality o f the afore mentioned e ro si on proce s s and it i s
prob able that the proce s s ha s n ot yet re a c hed it s wid e st spr e ad
o r it s gre ate st inte n sity
?
f
o
What
the future If de cadence c annot b e u nd e rstood a s a
natural ph as e in th e organic cycle of h uman s o c i e tie s th e n
there i s nothing 1 nev i t ab le about it e spe cially n ot in the short
run ( in the long run one could a rgue a ll hi storic al c o n st ru c
—
tion s come ap art not be cau se they a re o rganic e ntitie s but
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26
C H U RC H
AN D S T A T E I N A M E R I C A I N
Y
T W E N T FI R S T C E N T U RY A D
.
Wilford E S mith P h
.
,
.
D
TH E
.
.
I NT RO DU CTI ON
This p a p er is limited t o a consid eration o f wh a t the religiou s
con dition o f America will be in the ye a r 20 0 0 as it will relate to
political powe r The re are s everal pos s ible rel ations which m ay
prev a il in twenty fo ur ye a rs the th re e m os t extre me bei ng :
.
,
1
.
2
.
fi ci al ab ol iti on o r con tr ol of re ligi on b y an a ll p owe rfu l stat e ( as in
Russi a)
C o mp l e t contr ol o f t h e state b y re l igi on ( a s in E ur o p e and
l s e wh e re in t h e p ast)
T h e w ith e ri ng aw ay o f b o th c hur c h and st a t e s o th a t m e n wo u l d l i v e
in u nco r c e d id yll i c br o th e rh oo d ( t h e C o mmu nist dr e a m )
Of
e
e
3
.
e
,
I n an e xplosive atomi c age it c ann ot be s aid th at the se ex
trem e p os sibilitie s are u nre al but the od d s agains t th em are too
gre at fo r s erio us con s ideration in this paper Other more prob a
ble pos sibilitie s are th at :
,
,
.
1
.
v l s f fr d om and t ol r anc wi ll conti nu e t o grow and n o ur
ag e p l ur a l ism
f r l igi o n an d n o n r l igi o n pri v at ly supp o rt d but
pr o t ct d b y s o v re ign l aw
Ecum e ni c a l br oth rh oo d t ol r an t o f di v rsity o f r l igi o us int rpr
d s oci ty gi v ing l itt l h d t o
t a t i n w i ll u nit A m ri c an s in a c i v i l i
fu nd am nt a l isti c na rr ow n ss
Ci v il r l igi on w i ll p l ay a l arg
r ol
S t at supp ort o f m aj o r faiths o r on m aj o r r l igi on and t o l rant
pro t cti on f o th rs a long s n in s v ra l E ur op an cou ntri e s wi ll
b com t h no rm
Th st a t w i ll pr ov id b o th supp o rt an d p r o t c ti on fo r al l r l igi on s
and
r c i v s u nfair ad v antag ov r o th rs
e e th at no n
T r a diti on al r l igi on w i ll gr adu ally fa d aw ay in a s cu l ari e d s o ci
t y wh r phi l o s oph y o r c i v i l r l igi on w i ll pr v ai l t ol e r a ti ng p o ck e ts
f v stigi a l r l igi on a sm a ll gr o ups f fu nd am n t a l ists h ol d o ut
ag ai n st s c u l arism
Le
e
o
ee
e
o
e
2
.
e
.
e
e
”
e
e
e
e
“
e
ee
”
e
.
”
e
,
O
e
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e
e
,
ee
s
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e
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e
,
e
e
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e
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e
s
e
.
e
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e
,
e
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.
e
o
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ze
e
“
s
5
e
.
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.
e
“
e
4
e
c
.
e
e
.
e
e
e
e
e
e
o
3
e
o
“
”
e
.
E a c h of th e se pos sibiliti e s ( or com bin ations of them ) s e em s
re ali stic but tre nd s in pub lic o pinion an d in legal d e ci sions
sugg e st th at the firs t s econ d or fo urth i s mos t likely to prevail
Ten ye ars ago th e firs t wo uld s e e m to be a s cend ant but r ece nt
movem ents toward governm ental support of religion sugge st
th at the fourth m ay yet prevail Pluralistic d evelopments c ould
evolve t o th e s e c ond altern ative but d es ire for p e rs on al free
dom an d b eli ef in e qu al rights are t o o high ly pri z e d and
ethnocentri s m i s too strong to pe rmit eithe r thi s alt e rn ative or
,
,
.
,
,
.
,
,
,
W lford E
i
Whil
e o
Ch u rc
28
ap l i (CO L) AU S ( R t ) i Prof or of S ociol ogy B righ am Yo ng U ni er t y
n ct i
d t y Ch a p l a i S mi t h co d ct d t u di
r a of
t t h U S Ar m y Ch p l in B o a r d in t h
h / S t t r l t ion Hi i nt
i
t
w w or k pr o
d
l
b l t o t h ch p l i c
d
.
a
a e
t
S mi h , Ch
ve
a n
n
u
e a
s
.
s
,
,
n u
e ns v e an
e
s
.
e
e x e ns
e ss
es a
s
e
u
,
a
e
ve
v a ua
e
v
e a e
a
e
si
a
a n y
.
.
the third t o m ateri aliz e Among s oci al sci e ntis ts the fifth alte r
n ativ e might rec e iv e most support but o ne wh o believes in th e
r e ality of G o d and etern al gospel pri n cipl e s h a s diffi culty with
this view which s eem s im p l ic it e l y to argue th at both G o d an d
religion are m an m a d e an d will fad e away a s m en be c ome e du
c at e d E ven the religiou s pe rson will have t o face the pos s ibility
of whol e s a l e apos ta c y however whi c h could l e ad to this e v e n
.
,
,
.
,
,
t u alit y
.
F R E E D OM CON SC I E N C E AN D S O V E R E I GNTY
,
,
A po pu l ar th e ory in c ontemporary sociol ogy h ol d s that c on
flict is the d omin ant c h ara c teri stic of hum an so c i ety M an i s a
c r e atur e wh o struggle s agains t oth er m en other cre ature s an d
th e ele m e nts in his e fforts to fulfill his wants S tatu s an d th e
po we r th at go e s with it are not e qu ally av ailable to all an d
th e re i s n ot e nough for e v e ry on e to hav e all h e wo uld like
S tatu s and pow e r mu st b e won an d p e rsons and groups with th e
g re at e st a bility to ach i e ve will be at oth e rs to the m an d w ill th e n
m aintain th e m on ly so long as they ar e strong e nou gh to d o so
So c i al organiz ation ( in cluding econ omi c politi c al an d re l igio us
organiz ation ) is a m e an s of s olidifying th e statu s of pow e r hol
d e rs an d of regul ating s truggl e s for pow e r so th at th e y do not
b ec om e too c ostl y B ut so c i al organiz ation i s s e ldom strong
e no ugh to pr e vent d ev i an ce o r e v e n i n s urr ec tion for long for
”
“
th e re is al w ays a cir c u l ation of th e e lit e s w her e by pow e r
ho l d e r s wh o h a ve gro wn fl abby ar e r e pla ce d in turn b y mor e
e n e rge ti c on e s d e spit e th e built in advantag e incu mb ant s e nj o y
”
“
Ord e r th e ori e s in s o c iology on the oth e r h and c ontend th at
n orm s and s o c i al c ontrol s a r e not always e stab l ish e d by c on fl i ct
b ut m a y al so b e the product o f l ong us age by c oo pe ratin g and
r e spon s ibl e p e ople O rd er th eorists agre e th at a l l s o ci e ti e s will
h a ve d ev i an c e but th at the d e vian ce will s e rv e to c l arify th e
norm s an d its punishm e nt will j u s tify th e right e o usn e s s o f
c onform ers an d th us m ak e v irtue mor e r e warding
M an y phi l os ophers and th eol ogians c ont e nd that th e s e
so c iological th eorie s fail to giv e du e c r e dit to th e inn ate c on s ci
e n ce o f m e n th at th e r e h as b ee n an e n dle s s hum an struggl e to
ri s e abo ve so c i al c ontrols an d sta gn ant norm s to a l ev el of in di
v idu a l int e grity gov e rn ed by ful ly d eve l ope d c ons c i e n ce whi c h
l i ft s a p e rs on abo ve c u ltural bond s or c on fl i c ts and m ak e s h im a
fr ee r e spon sible and c re ativ e s o ul P e opl e with th is ph il os o ph i
c a l o ri e ntation s ee a gradu al ris e of m an kind from ag e s of b on
d age to s up e rs tition fe ar and ignoran ce to a n ew a ge of fr ee
d om an d j u s ti ce
Gu s ta v u s My e rs tra ce s som e o f th e thre ad s of c on fl i c t and
e t h no c e nt i s m in Am e ri c an history an d s ho w s th at p e rs ec ution
.
,
,
.
,
.
,
.
,
.
,
,
,
.
,
,
.
,
.
,
,
,
.
,
,
.
29
of unpopul ar pe oples is a s old as history but he argue s th at we
m ay be he ade d tow a rd an era of tol eran ce an d re spect for
1
others
H e d ecl are s
,
.
,
it is w ith conditi on s in E ng l an d th at w e are conc e rn d sinc th o s e
fo rm e d t h e b a ckgr o u n d o f t h e A m e ri c an colon ist s in ge n e r a l
I nasmu c h a s fo r c e nturi e s t h e c o urs e o f t h e E ng l ish g ov e rnm e ntal
ac ti on s w as a s e ri e s o f pr o s c ripti o n s an d p e rs e c uti on s p opu l a t ion s
gre w up u nd e r th e s e fami l i ar pr o c e ss e s T h e y a cc e pte d th e m al l t h e
m o re b e c a us e t h e cl e rgy t o l d th e m th at it w as t h e w i ll o f G od to
e xt e rmi n at e t h e c r e atur e s o f t h e D e v i l
e
e
,
,
.
2
.
A m ri c an R vol uti on ush e r d in s om no ta b l ch ang s n o f
whi ch w as t o su nd e r t h p ow e r f t h th oc r ati c l m nts t h e o th r t o
di m inish t h spi rit f big o try c o h ri ng in pre v i o us co d s o f l aw s ( p 1 00 )
th e
e
e
e
e
e
e
o
o
e
e
e
e e
e
e
e
,
o
e
e
,
e
.
.
As men of goo d will see k enlighte nm e nt th e y se em to ri s
abov e bigotry but th ey still re ali z e th at different peopl e ( e ven
the intelligent le arne d an d hon e st) h ave different commit
ments and u ne qu al cap aci tie s wh ich m ake c omplete e qu ality 0
fre edom impos s ible Fran cis Agn ew is o n e of m any c o nt e mpo r
ary s c hol ars who re aliz e th at th e con cept of compl e t e fre e dom
c an only be abstraction :
-
,
,
,
,
.
( Fre e d o m ) may b e
d e fi ne d a s t h e abs e n ce o f ne ce ssit y c o e rc i on o r
c onstraint in t h e ch o i ce o f a cti on Put collo qui a lly it is t h e right t o d o
as o n e c h o o s e s
re stri c t e d o nly b y t h e l imits p o s e d b y t h e hum an
c ond iti on
B ut on c e this h a s b e e n s ai d it mu st b e add e d im
m e di a te ly th at con c e i v d a s an a ppr o ach t o l i fe this conc e pt of fre e
d o m is an abstr acti on a c him e r a a ph ant a s y Any re alisti c V ie w o f
fr e e d o m e v e n in a pur e ly s e c u l ar s e ns e i nvolv e s quite n e c e ss ari ly t h e
fo r e g o ing of an a bs ol ut e fre e d o m o f c h o i c e
,
,
“
.
,
”
.
,
e
,
,
,
.
,
,
,
3
.
Agn ew note s h oweve r th at de spite its ab stract n ature m an
h as always s truggled t o b e li e ve th at fre edom co uld b e attained :
,
,
D t e rmi nism wh e th r arri v d at fr o m con si de ra ti on f t h natur
o f G o d (wh o a t h s c h ol asti c s s aid must c aus v ry thi ng n t only in
its ss n ce but al s o in its m o d e ) o r fr o m co n sid e r ati on f t h i ne xo rab l e
l aw s o f n atur s e e ms t o b lock t h p o ssibi l it y o f hum an fr e d o m Fr o m
t h di l e m m a whi c h it p o s s fo r t his qu e sti o n th r e is n l o gi c a l gr e ss
A nd y t d t rmi nism h as ge n e ra lly b e e n r g ard d a s an a b rra ti on on
t h e W ste r n phi lo s o phi c al s c n
M an xp ri nc s fr d o m w ithi n
him s l f and We st r n th o ught b o th r l igi o us and s cu l ar h as con
t in u e d a t tr m n d o us co st t o i n sist th at m an is fr
S o c o nstan t a
tra diti on a ss rt d ag ain st s o fo rmid ab l a di ffi c u l t y in di c a t s b e y ond a
d o ubt t h imp ort anc o f t h e ph no m e no n i nvolv d ( p
e
s
,
e
e
,
o
e
e
e e
,
e
e
,
e
e
e
e
o
e
e
e
o
e
’
e
e
e
o
e
,
e
.
e
.
e
e
"
e
e
e
e
,
e
e
e
.
e
2
3
Ibid
.
,
p 7
.
v
e
Hi s
to y
r
.
e
e
e
f B ig
o
ot y i
r
n t he
Uni
,
th e
t d St
at es
e
.
.
g oo d whi c h c an b e achi eve d
( Ne w
Yo k
r :
o
ou e
R and m H
s
,
.
r ci
Agne w , F
an
.
“
s,
R evi ew , V ol 1 69 , N
30
s,
,
e
but w h at is v a stly m o r e imp ort an t
s
e
e
,
ee
ee
e
s,
e
e
e
e
Myer Gu t a u
e
o
.
t
Chri s i an
J e
6 ( un
Fr
eed
p
.
o
m—
37 0
.
A Ne w Te s
t
am
e t
n
Re fl e
ct on
i
,
”
Th e Am e ri
c
an
E
ccl
e s i as
ti c
al
s oci e ty is p o ssib l only w ith t h e d e v e lopme nt o f stru cture s whi ch
p l ac a r e sp on sib l r e stri cti on up on a bs ol ut e fre e d o m ( pp 3 7 0
in
e
e
e
S uch re straint
.
.
,
s elf control
b e founding in individu al
b as ed on awaren es s of the interd epen dence of men and the
limitations o f individu al powe r o r it can b e impos e d by extern al
soci al politic al o r religious control s I f it i s impos ed from with
out Chri sti an i de alism b e com es a farce for th e Chri sti an con
“
cept of free dom mu st be The abs ence o f ne ce s s ity coercion or
”
restraint rel ative to the living of the gospel i d e al ( Agnew p
3 7 1)
Milton K o nv it z make s a compelling ple a for th e enthron ement
of cons ci en c e rather th an exte rn a l c ompul sion in h uman ex
4
pre ss ion H e believes that religion grows out of cons ci e n c e an d
th at m an mu st b e tru e to him s elf even if it me an s confrontation
with sovereign force or religious edict Hi s argum ent i s comp e l
ling in its pl e as for m an to stan d for wh at he b elieve s and th row
O ff th e sh ackl es of ext e rn al re straint for to d o oth e rwis e is to
forfeit di gnity
K onv it z de cl ares h owe ver th at we live in ch an ging and c on
fu s e d tim e s :
c an
,
.
,
,
,
,
,
,
.
,
.
,
.
.
,
.
,
,
l imits n t h l gitim at p ow rs f gov rnm nt a r n t fro n
Li n s a
dr awn but th y ar c on stantly b e i ng r dr aw n and n n
l in wi ll b in t h n x t d c a d o r v n in t h ne xt
an fo re t ll w h r t h
y ar
O ur v i w s ab o ut t h v ry natur o f r l igi o n l i k o ur v i w s o f t h
stat h av u nd rg one dr a sti c c h ang s and t h n d f this pr oc ss is
n t in sight W n l o ng r kn ow d fi nit ly t h thi ngs th a t a r C a s a r s
and t h
things th at ar Go d s ( p v iii )
Th e
o
re
e
c
e
e
e
,
e
e
e
e
e
e
e
o
e
e
e
e
e
e
e
e
e
e
ze
o
o o
,
e
e
e
.
e
e
.
e
e,
e
e
e
o
e
e
e
.
e
e
o
e
e
e
e
,
e e
,
e
e
e
e
o
e
e
’
e
’
e
.
.
H e goe s o n t o argu e th at m od ern e nlightenm ent i s opening
th e way for m an t o q ue stion o l d ways a n d to stand bold ly on his
own feet :
this qu e sti oni ng m oo d sp are s no o ne and no thing I t re fus e s t o
h one st t o g o d d e b ate st a rt e d b y t h e
e x e mpt G o d and r e l igi o n Th e
B ish op o f W o olwi c h and t h e d e ath o f Go d d e b at e and t h e s e cu l ar
c ity d e b ate and t h e d e b ate in V ati can C o u nci l I I— all are p art o f t h e
s am e ph e no m e non : no thing no in stituti on no o n and no b e li e f is t oo
s ac r d t o b e qu e sti on e d ( p 4)
N ow p e rh aps fo r t h e first tim in hist o r y t h e l aw as an i n stituti o n
is its e l f b e i ng c riti c ally op e nly d e fi antly ch all e nge d ( p 5)
And
.
“
”
.
“
”
“
,
,
”
,
,
e
.
e,
,
.
e
,
,
,
.
,
.
ur e mb e rg t ri a l s e stab l is h d t h e pri ncip l e in i nte rnati o nal l aw
th at t h e d e fe n s e of h av ing act e d pursu ant t o o rd e rs o f t h e g ov e rnm e nt
o r a sup e ri o r o ffi c e r d o e s no t abs olv e a d e fe nd an t fr o m r e sp on sibi l it y
( p 99)
The Univers al De c l aration of H um an Rights adopte d
Th e N
e
.
.
,
by the U N Gen eral As s e mb ly in
.
4
Ko nv 1t z ,
M i lt o
n R
.
.
,
R e l igi
o
us
t
li b e r y
a nd
o c c
C ns i e n
e
1 948 ,
( Ne w
Article
Yor k V king Pr
:
i
e s s,
1,
s ays
,
All hum an b i ngs a b o rn fr a nd qu a l in dignity and rights T h y
a
nd ow d w ith r a s o n and c on s c i nc e and sh o u l d a t t ow ards n
f br o th rh o od ( p 1 00 )
ano th r in a spirit
re
e
re e
e
ee
e
e
e
e
o
e
.
e
.
c
o
e
.
“
Citing J o b B ehold he will sl ay me ; yet I will d efend my ways
”
t o His fa c e ( J o b
an d the fact th a t Abrah am d are d que s
tion God abo ut th e j u s tice of d estroying Sod om K o nv it z con
e lu de s th at
,
,
,
,
T hr o ugh con s ci nc m an t ran s c nds t h st at and its l aw s and p ass e s
judgm e n t n th e m B u t v n m o re thr o ugh c on s ci e n c m an trans
ce nd
v n his r ligi on and sti ll m o r d ar s t o judg v n Go d hims e lf
( p 1 03 )
e
o
s e
e
e
e
.
e
e
e
e
e
e
,
e,
,
e
e e
e
.
.
ligi on m ay e nh anc o r d e gr ad man; it all d e p e nds on wh at it is B ut
w ith o ut con s ci nc m an h a no digni ty ; with o u t it man is n t man
Re
e
e
e
e,
.
s
o
,
.
T o pro te ct r ligi on fu lly it is n c ss ary t o pr o t ct cons ci nce on w hi ch
it is b as d and w i th o u t w hi c h it c o u l d no t lo ng xist On d ay t h e
S upre m C o urt w i ll f e l its l f co mp ll d t o r c ogni this fact and gi v e
it constituti o nal digni ty ( p 1 0 4)
e
e
,
e
e
e
e
e
e
e
e
.
e
e
,
e
.
ze
e
.
TR E N D S I N GO V E R NM E N TA L CO NTR O L
It app e ars th at politi c al autho rity is in e vitabl e in a stabl e
s o c i ety and th e worl d trend i s to w ard ev er growing gove rn
m e ntal c ontrol i n the lives of men U n c ontrolled - fr ee dom of
e nte rpri s e in c omm e r c e religion edu c ation an d e ven m arri age
h as l e d to e xp l oit ation and oppre s s ion S o m e n turn to gov e rn
m e nt ov e r w hi c h b y th e po we r to v ot e th e y fe e l th at th e y h a v e
som e c ontrol for prote c tion and as s istan ce Th e c on s e qu e n ce is
e v e r gre at e r go v ernm e ntal c ontrol s and c osts N ew sw ee k D e
c e m b e r 1 5 1 9 7 5 focu se d on th e gro w ing power and thre at of
big go ve rnm e nt p la y ing its p at e rn a l isti c role whi c h h as c re at e d
“
”
a r e volution of ri sing e ntitl e m e nts ( qu oting D ani e l B e l l) an d
shift e d fo c u s from th e tim e -honor e d Am e ri c an b el ie f in the ri ght
of all to pursu e e qu al opportunity to a belief in th e pursuit of
e qu al out c om e s and adv antage s as practi c ally a bsolu te rights of
c itiz e nship to the point th at the sta bilit y of Ameri c an s o ci ety is
thre at e n e d ( p
Go ve rnm ent in Am e ri c a in 1 97 5 employ e d
billion pe ople an d sp e nt
billion acc ounting for 3 7 % of
th e gros s n ation al produ c t c omp ar e d to 1 2 % in 1 9 2 9 and th e re
is l ittle lik e lihoo d th at governm e nt gro w th i s abo ut to e n d The
v oting pub li c c ontinu e to d em an d big gov e rnm e nt
As gov e rn me nt as s u me s gr e at e r d omin an c e in the live s of
?
men doe s it thre at e n fre ed om of r e ligion Trend s in seve ral
ar e as wh e re th e st ate h as ex erci s e d so ve r e ign powe r will help to
cl arify th e p i ctur e :
1 M edicin e
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32
“
The Academy Award winning movie O f 1 9 7 5 One Flew Ove r
”
the Cuckoo s Nes t is an open w a rning about governmental
control of the rights o f th e ment a lly ill This warning is no t
5
n e w The U S Di strict Court i n N ew York s p e lle d out the gov
e rnm e nt a l view in its Winte rs v s Miller verdict o n N ovembe r
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re e d o m of re l igi o us b e li e f is a bs ol ut e
How e v e r t h e fr e e d o m t o a ct
e v e n wh e n t h e ac ti o n is in a cco rd w ith o n e s r e l igi o us co nv i c ti o ns is
no t t o t a lly fre e fr o m l e gis l ati v e r e st ri c ti on s
Wh e n th e re are str ong
inte re sts o f t h e S ta te o th e r th an t h e w e l fare o f t h e p ati nt al o n t h
p ati e n t s re l igi o us o bj e cti ons m ay b e igno re d w h e n tre atm e nt is n ce s
s ary
A l imita ti on o f r l igi o us prac ti ce s is pr op e r wh n th e r is a
c o mp e ll ing pub l i c i nte re st w hi ch confl i cts with t h e i n di vidu a l s pri v at e
r e li gio us int e re st
F
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Con s c ientiou s Obj ection t o Military Particip ation
There h ave b een d oz ens of c Ou rt cas e s d e aling with c o nscie n
tious obj e ction to war T h e Supre me Court h as spe lled out thre e
r e qui r e ments fo r CO statu s which h ave b e c ome stand ardi z ed in
the c ourts :
a The cl aim ant mu st show th at he c ons cientiously o b
j e cts t o war in any form ( Gillett vs Unite d States
2
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401 U S
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,
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b He mu st sh ow th at h is oppos i tion i s b as e d o n re ligi
o u s training and b elief as th at h as been constru e d
by th e Supr e m e Court ( Unit e d States vs S e e g e r 38 0
U S 16 3 ; Wel sh vs Unite d States 3 98 U S
c H e mu st sh ow th at his o bj e c tion is sin c e re ( Witmer
vs United S tat e s 3 4 8 U S
R e spe ct for c on s ci en c e h as th us re ceived strong suppo rt in
j u di ci a l arbitration wheth er th e p e tition e r is re ligious or an
atheist How far this tol erance wo uld go if n ation al survival
we r e at stake c an not be s aid at pr e s e nt Ho we v e r ev e n now the
c ourt re quires c on s c ien ce to coin ci de with gov e rnm e ntal
gui d el in e s Obj e ction to a giv e n war regardles s o f h ow logi c al or
sin ce r e h as not b ee n r ec ogniz ed
3 St ate Contro l of Priv at e S c hool s
M any co urt cas e s h av e s p e ll e d out th e stat e s rel ation s hip t o
pri v at e s c hool s but the re are still are as of dis s ent an d c o nfu
sion an d d e cisions v ary with th e pr e s s ur e s of the tim es
T he 1 92 5 S o ci e ty O f S isters and Hill Milit ary A c ademy c as e s
were a m on umental n egation of a state s right to control priv at e
7
e du c ation
I n a laps e into a l es s l enient m oo d o n Ju ne 3 1 94 0 th e U S
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Th
1 97 3 ,
3
oma
pp
S z as z ,
4—9
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306 F S u
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7
s
Am eri
c
pp
an
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“
M e dici e
n
and
the S
Y or k)
w R p o t Annot t d
1 1 58 ( N e w
e
r s,
t te
a
:
Th e
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a e
,
V ol 3 9 ,
.
Fi r t A m
pp
s
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e nd
me nt
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,
V io l a t e d
”
,
Th e
Hu m ani s
t
,
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M arch /Apri
4 7 3—4 7 4
33
5 4
Supre me Co urt in a
deci sion rule d th a t de spite their re ligi
ou s be l iefs Lilli an a n d Willi a m G o b it is aged 1 2 an d 1 0 would
h ave t o p ledge allegi an ce t o the Americ an fl ag B ut on June 1 4
1 9 4 3 the Supreme Court reverse d this G o b it is ruling in th e
B arnette case
I n 1 94 7 th e Supre m e Court ( E vers on vs E w m g 33 0 U S )
ruled th at public s ch ool di stri ct s m ay provid e tran s port a tion for
parochi al s chool pupils an d on April 2 8 1 9 5 2 it rul e d th at New
York could rele as e pu blic s c hool pupil s for religio us e du c ation off
the s ch ool prop e rty if it involve d no c o e rcion nor c ost to the
8
state
F our y e ars e arlier howe v er the Supr e me Court h ad ruled
that allowing te achers of religion t o ente r the public s c hools t o
te ach was illegal saying :
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In no a c ti v it y o f
S e p ar a ti on m e an s s e p ara ti on n o t s om e thi ng e l s e
t h e s ta t e is it m o r e v ita l t o k e e p o ut di v isi v e fo r c e s th an in t h e s c h ool s
( M c Co ll um v s Bo ard o f E d u c ati on)
Pos s ibly m ore m om e ntou s th an th e s e rulings was th e
J anu ary 8 1 9 7 1 ruling o f th e S upr e m e Court of Wi s cons in (u p
h e l d by th e U S Supreme Court ) th at Ami sh children d o n ot
9
h ave to atten d publi c high school s
On July 8 1 9 5 8 the U S S uprem e Court rul ed th at
gov
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m e nt
is without powe r to pre s crib e by l aw any p art ic u
lar form of pr a yer
( the R ege nts Prayer Cas e ) and in 1 963
th e Murray an d S c h e mm p c a se s it outl aw e d B ibl e r e ading an d
r e li gi o us re c itations in pu blic scho ol s ( 3 7 4 U S
I n 1 96 3 Congre s s p as s e d th e Higher E du c ation F a c ilitie s Act
whi c h p rovid e s gra n t s to church rel ate d c olleg e s to s ubs idi z e
s e cu l a r fu nctio n s This was u phe ld by the U S S upr e m e CO
u rt in
1 97 1 ( Tilton v s R ich ard s on N o 1 5 3 U S S upreme Co urt ) B ut in
1 97 0 th e U S Suprem e Court stru c k d own the 1 969 Rhod e I sl an d
“
”
S alary Supplem ent Act which woul d h ave s ubs idi z ed pu blic
te a c hers te a c hing se cul ar s ubj ects in p aro c hial scho ol s and the
“
—
1 9 6 8 P e nn s ylvani a
Non pu b li c E l e mentary and S e c ond ary
”
“
Act whi c h authori z ed the purch asing of se c ul ar e du c ation a l
”
servi ce s from nonpu bli c s chool s T he Court d ec l ar e d th at th e s e
acts invit e d e x ce s s ive entangl ement of governm ent and r e lig
ion Howev e r the 1 965 ( and late r ame nd e d ) E lementary and
S econ d ary E du c ation Act p as s e d by C ongr e s s provid e s s ub
s idie s for pupils l n private s ch ools on the groun d s th at s uch aid
i s for person s an d not for school s The U S Suprem e C ourt
e rn
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9
Z o rac h
Th e E
a nd
34
a nd
ccl e
Gl c k
u
s ia s
Wis co nsm
tic
vs
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al
vs
C
.
o
Cl aw s n, 3 4 3 U S 3 0 6
o t D ig t
ur
es
Yod r 406 U S
e
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V o l 9 , N o 5 ( M ay
20 5
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p
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5 S
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t t
a e vs
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Yod r
e
,
1 82 N
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W
.
5 39
( Wis co nsm )
p e ti ti one r s are sti ll e ngage d in a gam e and at te mpti ng t o p e r pe tr ate a
col o ss al fr aud up on b o th this c o u rt and t h e fe d e r al p ris on s y ste m
N e v e r th e l e ss w ith all d ue r e sp e c t t o r e sp on d e nts t h e co urt c ann o t
d e cl are pe ti ti one rs r e l i gion i ll e gi tim ate ( p 3 8 3 )
.
,
’
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.
Citing this cas e th e U S Dist rict S D C ourt of I owa D C
agr ee d th at T h e riaul t s Chur c h of th e N e w S ong (E cl a t ) qu al
ifi e d as a r e ligion ( R e m ne ss vs B r e wer July 24
bu t on
M arch 1 8 1 9 7 5 the U S District Court W D of T ex as d ecl ar e d
th at the m as qu e rad e mu st h alt
th e unmi stake abl e st e n c h
of the s kunk is found e m an ating from th at whi c h p e tition e r h as
d e cl ar e d a ros e ( Theri ault v s
In oth e r c as e s pris on e r s
h a v e b een d e nied ce rtain u s e of pri s on fa c iliti e s b ec au s e o f th e
n ee d to prot ec t th e g e n e ral w elfar e ( S atanic R el igion K e nn e d y
vs M e a c ham O c tob e r 2 0 1 9 7 4 U S Dis tri c t Co urt D W y om
ing)
On Ju ne 3 0 1 9 7 2 a ft e r m an y d ec ad es of c om pu l s ory c hap el
att e nd an c e in th e military a c ad e mi e s th e U S Court of App e a l s
at Washin gton D C ru le d s u c h pra c ti c e unconstit ution al ( l at e r
uph e ld by th e S upr e m e Court ) p art l y b ec au s e it did not fu lly
r e sp ec t r e ligio us pluralis m in th e c ountr y and p art l y b e cau s e it
i nvo lve d s tat e support of r el igion
T h e S uprem e Court h as a l so ruled th at Am e ri c an m or al
stand ard s ar e s o div e rs e th at no ce ntral body c an pro v id e a
n ation al s tand ard d efinition of pornography ( Mi lle r v s C al ifo r
“
nia Ju n e 2 1
d ec l aring th at h e n ce forth O b s ce nit y is to b e
‘
d e t e rmi n e d b y app l ying c ont e mporar y c om mu nity s t and
ard s
T he c ourts in Id aho Tex as Montan a an d N ew York h a ve a l s o
rul e d in th e l ast thr e e y e ars th at priv at e o rgani z ation s m ay
e n for ce th e ir o w n mora l s tand ard s r ej ec t n onm e mb e rs re
qu e sts for a cc om mod ations c l aim exe mption from r e q uir e
m e nts of th e F air E mp l oym e nt Pra c ti c e s A ct an d ad h e r e to
th e ir own r e ligiou s b el i e fs T h e U S Court of App e a l s Seve nth
Cir c uit on Se pt e mb e r 1 5 197 2 uph el d th e ri ght o f a C at h ol ic
pri e st who had b ee n fir e d for pu b l i cl y c riti c i zin g t h e po l i c i e s o f
th e stat e hos pit a l in whi c h h e was e mp l o ye d as a c h a pl ain to b e
r e in stat e d in his j ob ( In c id e nta l l y th e qu e stion of th e s tat e s
e mp l o y in g a c h apl ain was n ot eve n c ons id e r e d )
R e l u c tan ce o f th e c ourts to i nt e rfe r e with r el igion and t o
re c o gni z e its m any m anife st ations w as a l so sh own in t h e 1 97 1
“
”
U S v s Arti cle or D ev i ce c as e T h e u se of E— m e t e rs b y t h e
Chur c h o f Sci e nto l ogy ( organi z e d in 19 55 ) w as ru le d to b e a
frau d in c ouns el in g th e rapy but th e c ourt woul d n ot rul e
13
again st their b e ing u s ed for r e ligio u s purpo s e s
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3
33 3 F S
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36
upp
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357, U S
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D i trict Cou t Di t rict o f Col
s
r
,
s
u mb i
a Ju l y 30
,
,
M c L o ugh l in has obse rved th at ami d st the de cad ence of
some of Am e ri c a s c hurche s and s ome of her religio us beliefs a
”
”
“
“
third for ce
c on sisting of the so c alled fund am entalist
church e s wh os e mem b e rship h as in cre a sed 5 0 0 t o 7 0 0 percent
over th e p ast tw e nty ye ars is bringing n e w religiou s vit a lity t o
”
“
the s cene ( whil e the more tradition al churche s h ave in
“
c r e as e d only 7 5 to 9 0 pe r ce nt)
H e add s
I think it could
b e s aid t h at th e third force i s no longe r s oli dly Prot e stant but a
r
u
a
l
li s ti c c ombin ation of Catholic s Protes tants and J e ws all
p
of whom are n ow p art of the pietistic Americ an culture sys
” 15
tem
B e rge r h as d ec l ar e d th at the churche s m ay b e c om e captive
in s titution s su bm e rge d in a cultur e religion i dentifi ed with the
”
“
Am e ri c an Way of Life the pu blic s chool s b eing the agen cy in
”
“
16
which this politi c ally e stablish ed culture religion is taught
Langdon Gilk ey argu e s that c ontemporary Prote stant theology
”
“
i f it is not d omin at e d b y c ivil religion h as m any s ec ul ar roots
17
and th at Prot e stantism i s e volving towar d s ec ul ari sm
B e c au s e edu c ation t e nd s to d ebu nk the m y ths on which r e lig
“
i on fee d s as O De a app e ars to s ee it Genuin e r el igio us e xpe ri
e nce iss uing in auth e nti c faith an d wholen e s s O f spirit and c om
binin g with c ontemporary rel e v an ce h as b ec om e in cre as ingly
rare an d diffi c ult Cons equently th is ag e la c ks r e l ev ant re l igi
” ‘
“
3
ous e x empl ars
H e ad d s I n a world th at cries o ut for au
t h e nt ic trans ce n d e n ce and ge nuine com mu nity th e tru mpe ts of
”
c onv e ntion al r e ligios ity give forth so und s of u n ce rtainty and
“
S om e m e n avoid th e c ontemporary religious c ri sis by relying
upon an e nlight e n e d and sophisti c at e d c omm on s e n s e
th e y le a ve qu e stion ing to thos e who m th e y c onsid e r es ot e ri c
Other m en stay within the s afe c onfi n e s
and impracti c a l
” 19
of a c ad e mi c di s c ip line s and profe s sion al p urs uits
M arty ex pre s s e s similar con ce rn for m an s too ofte n futile
for spirit u al me aning in plurali stic and s ec ular
s e ar c h
20
Ameri c a Novak j oin s the choru s :
“
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Al a d ai r M ac l nt yre o pe n d his re vi e w o f Ho n t t G d wi t h o ne
me m o r ab l e se nte nce Wh at is stri ki ng a b o ut D r Ro bi ns o n s b ook is
fir t and fo re m o st th at h is an ath ist a nd cl o s d it wi t h ano th e r
s
es
e
o
o
“
’
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,
e
s
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,
Will iam G M L h li I Th er A Th ird F o rc i Ch i t d o m D d l V l 96 N 1 Wi t r
1 96 7 p 4 5
'I bid p 5 1
m B er e P e t er L Th N o i
m b li
Cit y N Y
( G rd
g
f S ol m A
o f Co t mp or ary Pr ot t t Th e ol o i Amer c
L a gd o n Gilk e y S oc i a l
d I t l l ct u a l S o r c
D d l V l 96 N 1 ( Wi t
pp 6 9 9 8
Th o m
F O D Th Cri i o f t h Co t m p or r R ligio Co n cio
D d l V l 96 N 1
p 129
( Wi t r
I bid pp 1 3 1 13 2
Ma ti E Ma t y Th Spi it Hol E rr d Th S e r ch fo r S pi it u l S t l e in S c l r Ame i c
D d l V l 96 N 1 p 99
4
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37
c r d f t h E ngl ish is th at th r is n Go d a nd th at it is wis t o
pr ay t o him fr o m tim t o tim
“
The
ee
o
e
e
e
e
e
o
e
” 21
.
Nov a k conclude s that Chri sti a nity h a s prob ab ly re a che d the
2
end of the line "? The Seege r and We lsh con scientiou s obj ection
to war d e ci sion s b a se d o n since re be lief but unre late d to re ligion
are furthe r evide nce o f growing s ecul a ri sm a s the 1 9 6 1 reje c
tion o f M a ryl a nd s con stitution a l re quire ment th at all politic a l
office holders believe in God (T o ra sc o v s Watkin s 3 6 7 U S ) i s a
re a ffi rm at io n o f the sep ar a tion of church and st ate
H omo sexu ality i s becoming a ccept able in so me re ligiou s Cir
cle s a s are divorce a nd a bo rtion The Methodi st Church h a s
quietly done away with it s l ong st a nding re quire ment th at it s
mini ste rs vow t o refr a in from alcohol tob a cco a nd coffee T h e
Pre sbyte ri a n Church h a s re l a xed it s cond e mn ation o f pre mari
t a l sexu a l intercourse d e spite the cry of s ome me mbers that
“
We s h o u ld h a ve high stand a rd s t o strive for ; the chur c h o u gh t
to be in the high stand ard s bu sine s s j u st a s m uch as in t h e
” 23
forgive ne s s and h e a li ng bu sine s s
A 1 9 7 1 Ga l lup poll of 8 4 5 prie st s conce rning their view on the
Catho lic b an o n artificial birt h control reve a le d a gre at diffe r
ence a ccording t o age but of even the m o st o rthod ox gr o up
24
ne arly on e third dis agree d with the church s stan d :
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e
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Agre e
All
Dis agree
41%
67 %
28 %
r
l
t
s
e
s
p
27 %
an d u nder
4 0 an d over
39
67
N o Opinion
An int e rn ational m ail poll o f mini ste rs in 1 9 6 8 ( Gall up )
showe d however th at Ame rican s were mo st like ly to be lieve i n
a pe rson al Go d
T h e l owe st leve l of belief was found in
Swed en
The bre akdown in belief in God for the thre e
so -calle d m aj or faith s in a 1 9 7 1 survey of
Ame rican cle r
2“
gy m e n s howe d :
,
,
B el l eve i n a
Person al G o d
Protes tant
C ath oli c
R ab bis
i ha l N
.
23
,
a
a
26
38
I b id
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,
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,
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p
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“
,
—
“
7%
99 %
1%
55%
43 %
O
,
.
3 3 9f
.
Ch ri s
i ani
y:
Re ne w d
and
o
”
?
ne d
D a ed a l u s ,
N ot s ur e or
no belief
1%
,
4%
0p
.
e
,
s e
i
va
.
2“
25
93 %
Mc e o k
t t
e o r S l ow l y A b
Ib id pp 2 46 2 4 7
J c k St r Th Pr b yt ri n D e b t o r S L ook
L e o Ro t n p i t p 3 7 1
Ib d p 3 3 9
2‘
’2
B el i eve i n a
V ital Force
.
es
c
.
,
a
e
.
.
a e
ve
e x,
”
,
V o l 3 4 , N o 1 6 ( A u gu s
.
.
.
c it
t 11
,
.
,
p
.
23 9
.
p
.
54
.
I n a n ag e of plur a li sm St ark a nd Glock cite the growing
e cu me nical movement a s something of a d enial o f the impor
t ance o f once vit a l beliefs which le d t o the deve lopment of e a ch
27
denomin ation The key they say t o dying Chri sti a nity i s the
“
demi se of be lie f in the core of Chri sti an fa ith Chri st cru ci fie d
” 23
ri sen coming again
It m ay b e th at the fl ourishing growth of activity in th e s o
”
“
called fund amentali st churche s in the 1 96 0 s a nd 1 9 7 0 s and
”
“
the de cline in the growth o f m aj or churche s s upport s the
Glock and St a rk O b se rv ation s It m ay be that the b ro adminde d
ne s s of ed uc ate d ministe rs who se e shad e s o f gray in ste ad o f
j u st white s a n d bl a cks i s lo sing the suppo rt and con fidence of
pe ople who are looking for pillars of se curity i n tro uble d time s
a s E M Ad am s put it :
,
,
,
.
,
,
.
,
.
,
.
.
r o f re l igi o n p o l iti c s m o r al s and al l o the r b asi c v al u e issu e s
w e fe e l th a t e ve r yo ne is no t o nly e ntitl e d t o his O pi ni o n but th at
e v e r yo ne s o pi ni o n is just a s go o d a s anyo ne e l s e s w hi c h is t o admit
th at as far as truth is co nce r ne d no o ne s is wo rth any thi ng Wh e r e w e
h o l d th at the re is t h e po ssibi l ity of truth w e d o no t b e l i e ve th at
e ve r y o ne is e ntit l e d t o h i s o pi nio n Whi l e t f
a nc e m ay pr e v e nt c o n
flic t it m ay b e t h e pr o du c t of i ndiffe re nc e o f t h e co nv i c ti o n th at no th
i ng r e ally m atte rs th at e ve r y thi ng g o e s th a t e v e r y thi ng is p e rmitt e d
P e ac e w o n thr o ugh t ol e r anc e at t h e pri c e o f a wo r l d -v i e w wo u l d b e a
p o o r b argai n
H old e rs of such a view fe ar th e gene ral trend toward
In t h e
a ea
,
,
,
,
,
’
’
,
’
,
,
.
,
'
‘
-
t
.
,
,
,
.
,
29
.
libe rali sm in Ame rica ( spe arhe a d ed by i ncre a sing le ve ls of e du
c ati on ) which Cly de Parker ha s d o c u mented He cite s studie s
which sugge st th at only a b out h a lf o f our Ame rican college
stud ent s b e lieve in a pe rso na l God and much l e s s than h alf
believe in a phy sic a l re surre ction tho ugh the re are gre at varia
tion s fro m d enomin ation to d enomin ation He conclude s th at
“
the re i s little evid ence t o cau se one to be lieve th at re ligiou s
b e lief i s an impo rt ant force motivating behavio r of c ollege stu
dent s and th e re i s some evidenc e to i ndic ate th at othe r person
ality characteri stic s co uld a ccount for the be havioral differ
” 30
e nc e s between highly re ligiou s and nonre ligio u s student s
“
Hirschi and St ark h ave similarly conclude d th at The Church
31
Change s co ntinue e spe
i s i rre levant t o de linquen c y
.
,
,
.
,
.
,
,
2"
o
R d ne y S
t rk
a
and
r Y Gl oc k Will E thic
“
Ch a l e s
s
D th o f Ch ri t i nity
Be t h e
ea
a
s
?”
Tra ns -a
cti o J
n,
une
p7
Ib d p 9
d M o r li ty V i t l S
c h f h D ( Th i p c h w
A Ch a gi g A m ic M o r l
E M Ad m
t t h Thi t
th A u a l Sp otl h t Wom E t io D io U i er it o f N o th Ca r ol i a
gi
March
p 5 90
Cl y d A P r k r
B e lief of Col l g S tu d t i R
ch i R ligi o D
Ch
i R ligio
l p m t E d it d b y M t o P S t r o mm
B ook I
p 7 68
( N w Y o r k H wt h o r
T r a i Hir chi
d Ro d
c S o m l P o b l m 1 7 ( F ll
pp
St r k
H llfi r
d D l
1 968 ,
i
.
.
.
,
’9
a
.
.
ven a
s,
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en
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20 2-2 1 3
.
,
v s
“
n
r ee n
e
.
ve o
,
.
.
”
.
n
er
a e an
a,
nn
on
ig
”
a
e n,
a
,
x e ns
n
pe e
i vi s
t
es o
n,
n
v
e
s
ay
s s
y
r
as
ee
n
,
.
a
e
“
,
er
e
s
ange s
an
n
n
us
e
en
.
ne y
a
“
,
e
e
s
e
:
e
an
a
en s,
e
ne
e i nq u e n
y,
”
s,
”
a
n
nc
n
e s e ar
.
.
,
r
e
s
us
e
e
.
a
,
.
39
.
in the sexu al revolution
but h e re again th e re h ave
32
bee n gre at d enomin ational difference s
“
c i a ll y
”
,
.
CO NC L U S I ON S AN D PR O SPE CT S
The d ata a sse mb le d in thi s p ap e r giv e evid e nce of a live ly
concern fo r the free dom of pe rso nal c on science at the s am e tim e
they show the i mperiou s n ature of law in a sove reign country
Court c a se s in l arge numb e r pre serve individ ual free dom of
be lief and o f a ction but they al so show the re ality of politi c al
control The grooming of servi c emen and po li c emen m ay be
regulate d in the n ame of di scip line peopl e m ay b e for ce d to
a c cept me dical tre atme nt to which th e y c on s c i e ntiou sly obj e c t
for their m i nor child re n at l e a st in th e nam e O f publi c w e lfare
and st at e control s are be coming large r in e mp loym e nt prac
t ic e s hou sing he alth e ducation we lfar e and bu sin e s s c ompe
tition
N e v e rth e l e s s within limit s of court d e fin e d pub lic and p e r
son al safety re ligiou s expre s sion rem ain s free in Am e ri c a Al
though th e sove re ign state c ontin ue s to in c re a se it s in fl u e n c e
and control in more and more are a s of h uman life it c ontinu e s
to re cogniz e and adhe re to the re quirement s of th e First
Am e ndment If the time com e s wh e n the gove rn ment take s ov e r
r e ligion it will b e b ec au s e th e c hur c h e s h av e invit e d it into th e
tent s o to spe ak by a cce pting pi ece m e a l grants an d s ub s idi e s
( and th e ir inevit abl e c ontrol s ) T hi s h a s b e g un to h app e n in
i ncre a s i ng aid to privat e s c hool s It c ould e a sily b e come mor e
strongly e ntrench e d by the y e ar 2 000 A D
Lev e l s of p e rsonal fre e dom and tol e ran ce p rob ab ly wi ll c on
t inu e to grow and privat e ly s upport e d plurali sti c r e ligion pro
t e c t e d by s ove reign law prob ab ly will pr e vai l d e spit e i n c r e a s i ng
state aid and c ontrol in a h e avily s ec ulari sti c tw e nt y -fi rs t ce n
tury
.
,
.
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
.
,
.
,
,
.
,
,
,
.
.
.
,
,
,
.
3”
40
se e
o
D i a l gu e , S u
mm
.
e
rI
s su e ,
1 9 76
.
The
of
F ut ure
H uman R e l at io ns in t h e U nit e d S t at e s
H e rbert 0 E dward s Ph
,
.
.
D
.
The re are some things whi c h i nvolve alm os t as much ri sk as
attempting to proj ect future po ss ibilitie s— but no t to o m any
Tw o how e v e r wh ich ru n an almos t n e ck and ne ck se cond
ar e : 1 ) int e rpr e ting the p ast ; and 2 ) trying to as se ss the pre s ent
Although I am not un aware of the terrible ri sks attend ant
upon th e e ffort I will att e mpt to dis c u ss the future of hum an
r e lations in th e Unit e d S tat e s Cl e arly the mos t significan t an d
mos t prob l em ati c ar e a of hum an rel ations in this country is
—
pr e di c at e d upon the c onc e pt of race n amely the b lack white
r el ation s
We wil l b e gin with a summary d es c riptiv e statement of wh ere
w e h a ve b ee n in ra c i al h um an r e lation s i n this c ountry in th e
p ast Sec on d l y we will dis c u ss where we are now as one bl a c k
p e rs on r e ad s th e situation Third ly we will proj ect some go als
for the future whi c h we feel eventuate out o f th e promis e th at
Am e ri c a c l aim s to b e and s om e expe ct a tio ns given our p as t an d
pr e sent re spon s e s t o c o n fl ict u al s itu ations growing out O f bl a c k
and w hit e respons e s to h um an rel ations hip s
A fu rther introdu c to ry w ord se e m s in ord e r T h e procl aim e d
s e p ar ation of c hur c h and st at e in Ameri c an history mu st n ot
b el i eve th e fa c t th at c hurch an d stat e or organi ze d re l igion an d
po l iti c a l in stitutions at ev e ry l ev e l and in e very ar e a h a ve
c oop e rat e d an d c ons pir e d in th e d e fi nin g of l imit e d ar e as of
parti c ip ation in Am e ri c an life b y b lack p e op le Th at b e ing th e
c as e it is cle ar th at religious spokes m e n wher ev er situ ated
ha ve a pe c uli ar r e spon sibility for an d c ontri bution to m ak e to
ward th e c l arifi c ation o f thos e v a l u e s whi c h ought to in form our
in di v idu al and group r e s pons e s to oth e r p e rs ons an d groups
This sh o uld n ot surpri s e u s sin ce r e ligiou s motiv ation s h ave
be e n a c ontin uin g factor in th e c ourse of Am e ri c an life
Howe ve r O ft e n r el igion h as b e en sh unte d to th e sid e in the
de sir e to s e c ul ari z e Am e ri c an l ife how e v e r much r e li gion h as
”
”
“
“
b ee n r e du ce d to b e ing a h an dm aid en or kept wom an of
for ce s of status qu o oppre s sion it i s still signific ant th at it was a
r e li giou s l e ad e r ( M artin L King Jr ) who for ce d Ameri c a again
to on e of its p e ri o di c r e as s e s s m e nts of th e r e lation ship b e twe e n
pro cl aim e d go al s an d ide a l s an d it s in stitution al an d gro up
pra c ti c e s in h um an r e l ations
.
,
,
,
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,
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,
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,
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,
,
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,
,
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,
,
,
.
.
,
,
.
.
,
.
D r Ed w
.
d
e m an d
a rd
P ofe o of E thic
n auth o
nd l e c t ure
as a
s
is
r
r a
ss
r
s,
t he
Di inity S ch ool D k U ni r ity D rh
v
,
u
e
ve
s
,
u
m N C He is in g
a
,
.
r t
ea
r.
41
T h e L e ng t h e n e d S h a d o w
f t he P a s t
o
I n this bicentenni a l ye ar we are ofte n reminded of the glori
o us fe ats o f the Fo unding F athers We are ofte n remin ded to
follow their examples to b e pos s e s s e d o f the courage of our
c onviction s a s were the e arly le ad ers o f the c ountry N O one c an
deny th at the e arly le ad ers of the country were men of courag e
and determin ation I n m any ways they l eft in d elible impre s
sions an d footprints on the s an d s o f our historic a l time They did
ind e e d help to give sh a pe and ch aracter t o the c ontinuing am
biv alen ce toward the bl a ck pr e sen c e in this country
At first glan c e it might appe ar th at the F ounding F ath e rs
r e ally h ad undergone s ome kind o f trans form ation in their
thinking whe n we s ee them m ove from the cle ar and u nivers al
l angu age of th e De c l aration of Ind epe ndence t o th e adoption of
the
Compromis e in t h e Con stitution
The De cl a ration boldly st ated :
.
,
.
.
.
.
'
.
h ol d th e s e t ruths t o b e s e l f-e v id e nt th at all m e n are c r e ate d
e qu a l th at th e y are e n d ow e d b y th e ir Cr e at o r w ith c e rt ai n u nal i e nab l e
R ights th at a m o ng th e s e are L i fe L ib e rt y and t h e pursuit o f Happi
ne ss
“
We
,
,
,
,
1
T he se word s seem to give voi c e to Thom as J e ffe rson s famou s
’
vow of enmity toward every tyranny over the mind of m an
However in Articl e I S ection 2 Clau se 3 of the Con s t ituti on
we s e e th e p articul ari z ed appli c ation of the se self evid ent uni
vers al truths
.
,
,
,
,
,
.
dir e c t T axe s sh all b e app o rti one d am ong t h e
s e v e r a l S t at e s whi c h m ay b e i ncl ude d w ithin this U ni on acc o rding t o
th e ir r e sp e c ti v e numb e rs whi c h sh all b e d e t e rmi ne d b y addi ng t o t h e
wh ol e numb e r o f fre e P rs on s i ncl udi ng th o s e b o u nd t o S e r vi c e for a
T e rm o f ye a rs and e xcl uding I ndi ans no t t axe d thre e -fift h s of al l
o th e r p e rs on s
“
Re pr e s e n t ati v e s
a nd
,
,
e
,
,
,
2
.
“
However the problem whi c h o c c as ion e d th e
Com pro
—
—
mi s e th e bla c k pre s en ce also oversh ad owed and help e d to
give fin al sh ape to the D e cl aration its e lf In Je fferson s d raft of
th e De c l aration in which he catal ogu e d the griev an c e s of th e
c olonie s again s t King George I I I of E ngland a long se ction on
the slav e trad e and sl av ery was in clu d ed
Jeffe rson wrote :
”
,
’
.
,
Ge o rge ) h a s w age d c ru e l w ar ag ai nst hum an natur e its e l f
vi o l ati ng its m o st s ac re d rights o f l i fe and l ib e rt y in t h e p e rs on s o f a
dist ant p e op l e wh o ne ve r offe nd e d him c a pti v ating and c arryi ng th e m
int o s l av e r y in ano th e r h e misph e r e o r t o i ncur mis e r ab l e d e ath in
th e ir tr ansp o rt ati on thith e r T his pir ati c a l w ar far e t h e o ppr o brium o f
infi d l p ow e rs is t h e w ar far e o f t h e Christi an K ing o f Gre at B ritai n
D e te rmine d t o ke e p o p e n a m ar ke t wh e re M E N sh o u l d b e b o ught and
s ol d h e h a s pr o stitut e d his ne gati v e fo r suppre ssing e v e ry l e gis l ati v e
“
He ( King
,
,
,
,
,
.
e
,
42
“
,
”
.
gre ate st prote ctor an d defen d er o f hum an rights S o we sto od on
th e thre sh old of World War I I in 1 9 4 1 w ith as s e gr e g ate d a
s o c i ety as h ad existed anyw her e in the world
F e d e ral aid t o h ou sing was O fficially b as e d on a philo s oph y of
white racism All bran che s o f the Arm ed F orc es we re c om
p l e t e l y s egre gated along raci al line s New De al pro g ram s were
ope rating on raci st prin ciples Almos t all e duc ation al in s t it u
tion s from nurs ery s cho ol s to u niversitie s in cl udin g th e ol o gi c a l
s e m i n ari e s and B ibl e c ollege s op e rat e d to gi ve aid and c o m fo rt
to white ra c i sm
T he S upr e me Court was still interpr e ting t h e exe rc is e o f c iti
z e ns h ip rights along lin e s d etermine d b y th e ra c i a l c hara c t e r o f
th e litigants The st e ppe d -u p d e fen se in du stri e s excl ud e d b l ac k
e mployee s with out pre sid enti al l egi sl ati ve j udi c i a l or r e li gi o u s
“
oppo sition u ntil A Philip R and ol ph organi z e d t h e M arc h on
”
Washington
M o ve ment
whi c h
re su l t e d
in
Pr e s id e nt
Ro osevelt s c apitul ation to a d emand for an E xec uti ve Ord e r
b anning r a c i al di s c rimin a tion ( which was n e ve r e nforc ed )
White political primarie s were the ord er of th e d ay in o ur
so uth ern state s H ospit al s pris on s c e meterie s c hurch e s
all— wer e o perat e d o n raci st poli c ie s During th e att e mpts to
p as s sw ee ping di s c rimin ation me asur e s in th e le gi s l atur e s of
th e so uth e rn state s the Ch arl e ston N ews a nd Cou ri e r pub
l ish e d an e dito ri al attackin g the Jim Cro w l a w in t ravel w hi c h
w as un d e r c ons id e ration in th e S outh C arolin a le gi sl atur e :
.
,
,
.
.
.
.
,
,
,
.
.
,
,
,
.
,
’
.
.
,
,
,
.
,
A s w e h av e go t on fai r l y we l l fo r a th i rd o f a ce ntury i nc lu d ing a long
p ri o d o f re c ons t ruc tion with o ut su c h a m e a su re we c an p r o b ab l y g t
o n a s w e l l h e r e a ft e r w ith o ut i t and c rt a i nl y s o e xt r e m e a m e a s ur e
sh o u l d no t b ad opt e d and nfo r ce d w ith ou t add e d and urge nt c au s e
,
e
,
e
,
e
,
‘
e
6
e
.
I n an e ffort to sh o w how r i di c ul ou s su c h a m e a s u re s e e m e d
th e e dito r we nt on to po m t out wh at oth e r a c tion w o ul d b e
n ec e s s ar y to b e c ons istent with the prin c ip le o f s e gr e gated
str e et c ars :
,
I f th e r e m u st b e Jim Cr o w c a rs o n t h e r ai l r o ads th e r e sh o u ld b e J i m
Cr ow c ars o n t h e stre e t r ai lw ay s Al s o o n all p a ss e nge r b o ats
th e r e
sh o u ld b e Ji m Cr ow w ai t i ng s alo on s at a l l statio ns and Jim C r ow e ati ng
h o us e s
T h e r e sh o u l d b e Ji m Cr ow s e c t ion s o f t h e j ur y b o x and a
s e p ar ate Ji m Cr ow d o ck and w itne ss s t and in e v e r y c o urt — and a Ji m
Cr ow B ib l e fo r c o l o r e d wi tne ss e s t o k iss
P e r h ap s t h e be s t p l an
w o u l d b e afte r all t o t ake s h o rt c ut t o t h e ge ne r al e nd
b y e s t ab
lish ing tw o o r t hr e e Jim Cr ow co u nti e s at o nc e and t ur ning t h e m o v e r
7
t o o u r c o l o re d c iti z e ns fo r t h e ir sp e ci al and e xc l u si v e acc o mm o dation
,
.
.
,
,
.
,
,
,
.
B y 1 94 1 mos t o f the m e as ur e s so i roni c ally ridi c ul e d b y th e
Ch arl e ston n e ws p ap e r h ad i n fact b ec om e ge n e ra l prac t i ce N 0
Jim Crow c o untie s w e re s et a sid e but a ft e r th e S u pre m e Co urt
stru c k d o wn tho s e city o rdin an c e s s uch as tho s e from B al timor e
.
,
44
,
R e strictive coven a nts b ecam e re spectable
”
“
ping und es irable raci al and other groups o ut
b o rh o o d s
.
a comm on occu rrenc e M ore th an a third of the
o n their books which d enied to clergym en the
sons together in holy m atrimony witho ut u sing
.
following World War I I in
blac k Americ ans perc e ived
percei v ed by others Among
d e s egr e gating of th e
Force s by Pre sid ent H arry S Trum an in 1 9 4 8
On July 2 6 1 94 8 Pre s ident Tru m an i ssue d E xecutive Ord er
# 9 98 1 It stated in se c tion 1 :
.
.
.
,
,
.
I t is h e r e b y d e cl are d t o
p ol i cy o f t h e P re sid e nt th at th e re sh all
b e e qu al ity o f tr e a tm e n t and o pp o rtu nit y fo r all p e rs o n s in t h e a rm e d
fo r ce s w ith o ut re g ard t o r ac e c o lo r r e l igi on o r nati onal o rigi n T his
p o l i cy sh all b e pu t i nto e ffe ct a s r apid ly a s p o ssib l e h av ing d u e re gard
t o t h e t i m e re q u ire d t o e ffe c tu ate any ne c e ss ar y ch ange s w ith out
imp airing e ffi ci e nc y o r m o r al e
b e the
.
,
,
,
,
9
.
T h e p ac e of i nt ernation al events th e p olitical i mpli c ation s o f
th e d e m ographic shifts in th e blac k popul ation from th e rural
South to th e l arge u rb an ar e as of the N orth and the in ten sify
ing of the Cold War h e lpe d to cre ate gr e a ter s en sitivity t o the
inj u stic e s being v isit e d upo n bl a c k Am eri c ans
Con s e qu e ntl y the S upr e me Court w as more and more ap
”
“
p e aled to not in att e mpts t o d e m an d s e p ar ate but e qu al re
source s and privil e g e s for blac k Am e ricans bu t by c as es whi c h
c al l e d into qu e stion and ch allenged the c ons titution al v alidity
of th e prin c ipl e o f s e gr e gation itself Th e S upre me Co urt re
s po nd e d with its famo us B rown vs B o ard of E du c ation d eci sion
on M ay 17 1 9 5 4 whi c h d ecl ared s egregated educ ation to be
inher e ntly une qu al
Th e following ye ar s aw the b eginning o f the cel ebrated
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M ontgo m ery Bu s B oycott Th at m ovement no t only intr oduced
anoth e r stage in the b lack prote st again st the kin d o f rel ation s
which e xist e d in this country b etwe en th e ra c e s ; m ore I mpor
ta u tly it introdu c e d on th e n ation al an d intern ation al s t age a
y oung dyn ami c and arti c ul ate proponent of nonviol e nt direct
a c tion
M artin L Ki ng J r s cons ciou s effort to u n it e the principle s o f
th e J u d aO Chri stian t e achings an d th e id e al s enunci ated i n th e
D ec l aration of In d e p e nd e n c e and th e dem an d s o f the c ons t it u
tion m ad e an u npre ce d e nt e d app e al to m any v ari e d g roups I t
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45
was alm os t as i f Am e ri c a h ad fi nally produ c e d a proph e t who
“
”
w as able to j u stify appe al s t o move the is of inj u stice toward
”
“
th e ought of broth e rhoo d
”
“
B l a c k and whit e tog e th e r- w e sh all ov e rc om e " b ec am e t h e
th e m e s on g of the ins piring fiftie s and e arly si x ti e s M as s
m ar c h e s an d d e mon s tration s fo r j u stice an d brotherhood fol
low e d on e an oth er in rapid s ucce ss ion Th e y we r e intersp e r s e d
with sit in s wad e in s kn e e l ins and Fr ee dom rid e s
C ourt d ecision s E xe c uti v e Ord ers Administrative rulings
an d Civil Rights l aws ( 1 9 5 7 1 9 6 0 1 9 6 4 1 96 5 ) s e e m e d to s o und
th e d e ath kn e ll to ra c i al s e g r e gation T h e promi s e th at w as
Am e ri c a s e e m e d on the v e rge of b ec oming a d r e am no lon ge r
d efe rr e d
T h e h e ight of the M o ve m ent s e e m e d to b e re ach e d wh e n King
”
“
stirr e d mu c h of the n ation with his fam ous I H av e A Dr e am
sp eec h on Au gu st 2 8 1 9 6 3 Aft e r citing th e p ast and pr e s e nt
”
“
di ffi c u l ti e s fa c ing th os e wh o w e r e d em anding Fr ee d om N ow "
Kin g s aid :
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t o y ou t o d ay my fri e nd s th at in sp i te o f t h di ffi cu l ti e s and
fru s tr atio ns o f t h e m o m e nt I sti ll h av e a dre am I t is a d r am d e p l y
r oo te d in t h e A m e ri c an d re am I h av e a dr am th at ne d ay th i s nation
w i ll r i s e u p and l i v e o ut t h e t ru e m ani ng o f its c r d : W h o ld th e se
tru th s t o b e s e l f-e v i d e nt ; th at all m n are c r e at d e qu al
I h av e a
d re am t h at m y fo u r li ttl e ch il d r e n w i ll o ne d ay l i v e in a nati on wh e re
th y will not b e j u d g d b y t h e c o l o r o f th i r s kin but b y t h c onte nt o f
th e i r c h ar act e r
A nd if A m e ri c a i s t o b a gr e at n ati o n this m u s t
b e c o m e t ru e
I
s ay
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10
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Kin g was a w ar e th at mu c h w o rk r e m ain e d to b e don e to m ake
Am e ri c a wh at it sh o u l d b e But th e faith t h at Am e ri c a c ou l d b e
c h ang e d w ou l d b e c han ge d th at God w as in t h e stru ggle th at
t h os e wh o fought n on v io le ntl y w as j u stic e h ad co smi c c ompan
io nsh ip sh ou l d b e e nou gh to ins pir e a ll to w o rk h ard e r
”
“
“
With t h is faith King s aid we w i ll b e ab l e to h ew out o f th e
m ountain of d es p air a ston e o f h op e With thi s fait h we w ill b e
ab le to transform th e j angling di s c ord s o f our n ation into a
b e auti ful s y mph on y of broth e rhood With this faith we wi ll b e
ab le to w o rk tog e th e r to pra y toge th e r to struggle to ge th e r to
go to j ai l to ge th e r to stan d u p for fr ee d om to geth e r kno win g
” 11
th at we w i ll b e fr ee on e d a y
Kin g fel t th at th e b el o ve d communit y o f broth e rhood w as
w o rt h stru ggl in g an d s uffe ring for F e w p e r s on s h a ve m an
ife s t e d s u c h faith in its pos s ibi l it y in this l an d and few h ave
gi ve n as u ns e l fi sh l y for its re al i z atio n O n t h e ni gh t b e fore h e
w a s to di e a v i c tim of th e v io le n ce h e h ad o pp o s e d th ro ugh o ut
“
his c ar ee r King pro cl aim e d : I m a y no t ge t t h e re w i t h yo u b u t I
w ant y o u to kn o w toni ght th at w e as a pe o p le Wi ll ge t t o t h e
”
promi s e d l and
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46
A fe w months b e fore his de ath King m ad e an as s es sm ent of
the strugg le for th e staff of th e Southern Christi an Le ad ershi p
Con fer e nce m ee ting in r e tre at at Frogm o re South C aro lin a
In de s c ribing the first ph as e of the M o ve m e nt King point e d
out the diffe rence s betw e en the e x pe ctations of the black part ic
ip ant s in the stru ggle and their white liberal alli e s and s upp o r
“
t e rs
N e groe s b ec am e outraged by blatant in e qu ality T h e ir
ultimate go al was total u nqu alifi ed fre ed om The m aj ority of
th e white progr e ss ive s we re o utrage d by th e brutalit y dis
” 12
play e d T heir go al was improv e ment o r limit e d pro gr e s sion
King fel t th at whe re bla c k American s fe lt a s ens e o f a c hi eve
m e nt aft e r eve ry h ard fou ght v i c tory o ve r s om e a s p ec t o f dis
c rimin ation th e whit e lib e r als fe lt a s e ns e o f c omp le tion T h e r e
fore wh it e r e s istan ce b e g an to mount w ith e a c h att e mpt e d
“
mo ve from on e p l at e au to anoth e r T he arr e sting of th e l imit e d
fo rw ard pro gr e ss b y whit e r e sistan ce r eve ale d th e l at e nt ra c ism
wh i c h is d ee ply roote d in our s o c i e t y T h e sh ort e ra of w id e
” 13
s pr e ad goo d w i l l ev aporate d rapid l y
”
“
“
I mu st admit s aid King I m not totally optimisti c But I
cannot ac c ept d efe at
our most fruitful c ourse i s to stand
firm mov e forward with aggres s i ve non v io le n ce a cce pt d is ap
i
n
m
n
o
t
e
t s and clin g to hop e Ou r d e termin e d r efus a l not to b e
p
” 14
s topp e d w il l e v e ntu al l y thru st op e n th e d oor to ful fi l l m e nt
T h e att e m pt on King s p art in N ov e mb e r 1 96 7 to pr e p ar e th e
SCL C for th e Poor P e opl e s C amp aign w hi c h w as s c h e du le d for
t h e s prin g o f 1 96 8 is c le arl y diffe r e nt in ton e from th e v ibrant
c al l to c ommitm e n t an d high ex p ec tation in 1 9 6 3
T h e sh ad o w s of an a m bi v a le nt p ast c au ght u p w ith our efforts
on Apri l 4 1 9 68 and th ey h a ve b e en d ee pe ning and spr e adin g
e ve r y s in ce th at fate fu l d a y wh e n an a s s as sin s bu lle t w rot e
fi ni s to th e l ife an d effort o f a gr e at spirit Wh at has fol l o we d in
th e w ak e o f th at c ru sh in g blo w to broth e rho od h as bro ught u s
fa ce to fa ce w ith our p ast and a disturbin g pr e s e nt
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The D i s tu rbi ng P res e n t
I n th e 2 2 y e ars sin c e th e Supre me Court d ec ision on s e gr e
gat e d e du c ation alm os t e ve ry legal b arri e r to full p arti c ip ation
by b l a c ks in Ameri c an l i fe h as be e n lo we r e d or remo ve d F ew
in s titution s w i ll pub l i cl y d ec l ar e th e m s el v e s to b e s e gr e g at e d
T h e v otin g Ri ghts A c t of 1 96 5 h as r e s ult e d in m or e b l ac k el ec t e d
o ffi c i als in eve r y ar e a of go ve rnm ent B ut re a l int e gration h as
b ee n s u cce s s ful ly thwart e d in most ar e as
I n 1 96 8 th e Ko une r Commi s sio n r e port e d th at Am e ri c a w as
r apid l y mo v in g toward two so c i e ti e s on e b l ac k on e w hit e B ut
“
”
Am eri ca h ad a l ways b ee n at l e ast two s o c i e ti e s
I n 1 903 W E B D u B o is s aid th at th e prob le m o f th e 2 0t h
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47
i s wide r th an ev e r b efore
It me an s whit e s con
” 15
tr a ffic and s electing the vehicl es
Th e s ame i s sue of Th e Chri s t i an C e n t u ry c arrie d
”
“
entitl ed The Rise of Symboli c R aci sm Sym bolic ra
s ucces sful att e m pt to block further blac k a dv an c e s
their res ist a nce on cherish e d v alue s of fair play and
“
wh at is proper
Sym boli c raci sm thu s r e pl a c e s ov
an d permits a white m aj ority to ignore the d am age
” 16
crimin ation in fl icts on s o ciety
”
“
All is quiet o n th e Wes te rn Front might we ll b
ri ate d es cription of wh at h as h app e n e d to
j u stice in an ope n s o ciety F or th e
ge neration non e O f the politi c al cand
t o high offi c e fe e ls it ne ce s s ary to di
their po sition i s in r e gard to the c on
country in th e pre Nixon y e ars
M o st o f the organiz ation s th at we re
so ci e tal ch ange s in the p ast de c ad e
tents an d quietly gon e away c h ange d
“
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IFCO ( Int e rr e ligio us
Found ation fo r Commu nity Organiz a
tion ) r e cently s e nt out a c all for a N ation al O rgani z e rs Confe r
en ce to be hel d in June 1 9 7 6 Out of th e s evente e n ( 1 7 ) w ork
sh ops choic e s offe r e d particip ants o n the r e gi stration form no t
on e in cl early re c ogni z ab le a s d e aling with ra c ism
T h e S upr e me Court b y a 5 3 vot e h as r e stri c t e d th e r e ac h oi
th e 1 96 5 V oting Rights A c t whi c h r e quir e d s outh e rn stat e s t o
get fed eral approval b efor e c h an ging th e ir e l ec tion pro ce dur e s
I n oth e r ways th e Ni x on Ford c ourt se e m s d et e rmin e d to re
turn to th e pre -Warr e n court ye ars
Juli an B on d s t e s tim ony b efor e the S en ate Sub c ommitt ee o n
Con stitution al Rights re fl ects a growing m ood in th e b l a c k
com munity H e s aid :
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l iti c al s ci e ntists d on t usu ally think o f co urts as t h e m o s t d e m oc rati c
i n stituti ons in a s oci e ty bu t t o b l ack s for a ge ne r ati on t h e c o urts h av e
b e n t h e ss nc o f o ur d e m o c r acy t h e m ain s y mb o l o f t h e fac t o r o ur
b l i e f— th at w w e r e fi nally b e c o m i ng a p art o f this nati on T o d ay th at
s e ns e is g o ing fa st
Po
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17
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I n a spe e ch at th e 1 9 7 6 Com men ce m ent of N orth C arolin a
Central Uni v ersity Ve rnon Jord an Dir e ctor of the N ation al
“
Urb an L e ague stated : After th e activist ye ars of the 1 960 s the
United States is in a r e pre s s ive p e riod with r e gard to c i v il
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48
,
,
rights I n this bicentennial ye a r the sym bol of the continuing
struggle for civil rights and for e quality h as b ec ome the photo
gr a ph of a B oston m ob a tt a cking t w o bl a ck men on the step s o f
”
City H all with a fl ag pole be aring the st ars and s trip s
On M ay 1 7 1 9 7 6 th e twenty -secon d a nnivers ary of the S u
preme Co urt d ecision o n segregated ed uc ati on Pre sid ent F ord
m et with Attorney Gener a l L evi t o urge him to file a brief
re que sting the Suprem e Court t o review the B os ton d e s e gre g a
tion order which involved m as sive bu sing o f b lack a nd white
children
Affirm ativ e action progr a m s in hiring an d prom oting b lacks
are under att a ck from m an y qu a rters and the Suprem e Court
will likely rule o n a c a s e in volving that principle in the n e ar
future
One o f s everal action s t aken by the Unite d M ethodist Church
a t its recently conclu ded General Conference was the church s
with dr awal of commitment t o Proj ect E quality an ecumeni
c a lly fund ed age ncy th at pre s se s for affirm ative action in
“
minority hiring an d in buying practic e s
A
ann ual
fu nding to Proj ect E qu ality s n ation al office was cut to a token
throwing th e whole future of th at enterpri s e into que s
tion sin ce in recent ye ars Unite d Meth o dists were providing up
” 18
to on e -fourth o f P E s bu dget
There i s littl e qu es tion th at the mood of the country h as
ch anged in the l ast s even ye ars The m aj or institution s an d
m aj or politic al le ad ers h ave d one a very go od j ob in getting th e
people on ce again t o live all t o o comfortably with inj u stice
in e qu ality and th e ab s en ce o f a c ommunity where brotherhoo d
woul d prev ail
As th e sh ad ows o f the p ast h a ve d a rkened th e dis turbing
present so their h au nting p owers t e nd t o proj ect an u ncertain
future
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The Un c e rt a i n Fu tu r e
Th e kind of future th at we d e sire a nd are willing to proj ect
tend s to inform our re spo nse s t o the p a st and our actions in the
pre s ent The forces in control in s o ciety tend t o in sist upon the
rate of ch ange s o th at they can orche str a te the rel ationships fo r
t h e futu re
Thos e wh o are th e acknowle dge d le ad ers tod ay a re c o nt rib u t
ing t o an d preten ding to re fl ect wh at they perceive as a s o
called c o n s erv ative drift in the body politic The s o -c alled liber
al s a re in hiding o r in di s arr ay in alm o st every institution
Th e b i c en t enni al i s vi ew e d a s a c a ll f o r l o o k ing b a c k a nd tu rn
i ng t he c l o c k b a c k i n t he a re a of hu m a n re l a ti on s Th e re is a
perv ading fe ar th at any efforts t o m ove in any aggres s ive way
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49
toward cre ating a more j u st and more e qual s o c iety will simply
“
”
end ange r th e minis c ule gains alre ad y m ad e Holding the lin e
s e e m s to b e the most th at anyone d ar e s hop e for
It i s m ayb e th at ins titutions lik e th e military will be able to
continu e t o m ake progres s in the are a of hu m an rel ations if for
n o oth er re as on th an th at t e nsion fil l e d and c o nfl ic t u al situ a
tions tend to thre aten m orale and effici e n c y Th at pos sibility
places an addition al burd en on th e ch aplain s in th e Arm e d
F orce s
T he chapl ain s m ay very well find th e m selve s in a strat e gi c
po s ition as th ey atte mpt to bring th e i nsights of r el igion to b e ar
upon the rel ation sh ip s whi c h ar e O ft e n b e gun as a r e su l t o f
ord e rs pro cee ding d own th e c h ain o f c om m and
I t would b e ironi c in d ee d should th e mi l itar y c h ap l ain c y on e
of the fe w pla ce s on e w ould e xp e c t to find a proph e ti c v oi ce
pro v id e th e mora l an d r e ligiou s le ad e rship mo v in g u s to w ard
”
“
th e c r e ation of a b elov e d c ommunity B ut stran ge in d ee d are
the ways of Go d with m an
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r L B e c k r Th D cl ti o f I d d c N w Y or k Vi t g B oo k 1 9 58 p 1 8 6
d h B l c k Am i c
N w
d Ro b t L Z
d
d
Ci i l R i ht
Q ot d i Al b t P B l a t i
g
Y o r k A Cl a i o B ook 1 968 p 4 9
B ck r
i
pp 18 0-1 8 1
Qu o t e d Ibid pp 1 7 1 1 7 2
Th A fr o P t i N w Th olo N
Am i c
dit e d b y Ma rti E M rt y nd D e a G Pee m a
L o nd o n Th Macmill an Co m p any 1 969 p 1 68
N w Y o rk
h C t
Am i c
d I id o r St rr
d
Th N g o i
Qu ot e d i J o h Ho pe F r kli
Vi t g B oo k 1 96 7 p 6
I b id
Cf H r b t 0 E d w a d
l f h Co mmi tt
R ci m
d Ch ri t ian E t h c i Am i
J
f S o th
Ch ch m
Wi t r 1 97 1 pp 1 6—1 7
B l a t i d Z g nd p i t
A gu t M e i r t l
ti th C t 2nd d N w Yo rk B ob b
d
Bl c k P ot t Th o ght i
h Tw
M er i ll Co mp y I n c 1 9 7 1 ( 1 965) pp 3 49-50
I b id p 3 5 0
Ma ti L u th r King J A N w S e o f Dir ct io Wo ld i w April 1 9 7 2 p 5
I b id p 6
I bid p 1 0
Ap il 28 1 9 7 6 p 4 0 8
I bid p 4 03
W hi to P o t M y 2 3 1 9 7 6 p C6
Th Ch i ti
C t y M
26 1 9 7 6 p 5 1 0
1
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p 3 85
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50
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:
s
ever b efore t a king a futuri stic look at e du cation th e time
range s an d three key concepts of futurol ogy n eed t o b e c o n s id
ered
First c on cern for the future fall s into three time ranges : the
ne ar range ( the next few ye a rs ) ; the mi ddle r a nge ( about 1 9 8 0
an d th e fa r range ( 1 990 -20 0 0 a n d beyond ) Most interest
h a s devel oped in the midd le an d far range with two books c o n
s id e ring Th e N e x t H u nd r e d and T h e N e xt 5 0 0 Y e a rs One auth or
h as sugge st ed th at if a young m an were to plan his career with
sufficient vision tod ay he might finish his gradu ate work it h e
seventie s as a futuris t spe ci ali zing in the eightie s , b ecom e an
interdis ciplin ary an alys t an d critic o f the eightie s while living
through th at d ec a de a n d t h ere after in the nin etie s b ecom e an
1
hi stori an of th e eightie s
Three key c on cepts in th e d eveloping field of futuri sm are
”
”
“
”
“
“
altern ative future
scen ario
an d syste m bre ak
Th e
futurist i s n ot s o con cerne d with predicting th e future a s with
”
“
developing alternative future s The se are different pe rh aps
even contrasting sets O f future c on ditions s ome o f whic h are
e x trapol ated from rel ate d aspects o f the pr e s ent or highly prob
able ne ar r a nge conditions Other altern ative fu t ure s m ay b e
imagin a ry le aps with little app arent grounding in the pres ent
The se m ay b e general swe eping d e s criptions I n contras t
”
“
s c en a rios are s cripts spelling out th e s e quence o f events le ad
ing into a future situ ation C au s al proce ss e s an d d ecision points
are highlighte d in a st e p b y step m ovement from the pre sent to
a hypothetic al future F or this future alte rn ative a num ber of
scen arios m ay be con structe d hypo the sizing the different ways
in which th at p a rticu lar future might dev elop The alternate
future s a nd the s cen ario s furnish the working m a teri al for a d
dre ss ing spe cifi c i s s ues with system atic comp ari s on as se ss ing
alternative route s However long-r a nge ch a nge h as seldom
b ee n s t raigh t l ine evolution ary d evelopm ent fre e from s urpris e
Kenn eth B oul ding h as sugge ste d th at mech a nical s yste m s
(th e sol ar system fo r example ) p attern sy ste m s ( the genetic
system of the biologi cal worl d ) a nd e quilibrium s y s e m s ( ecol ogi
cal b al an ce in n a ture ) are fairly s table and predictab le S oci al
syste m s on the other h an d are e volution ary involving pro
c es s e s of genetic mut ation the growth o f kn owledge organi z a
tion s culture s an d so cietie s I n the evolution ary proc e s s ther e
is in cre ase in complexity and s ud den ch ange s in th e ch arac
t e ris t ic s o f the system it self B oulding c alls th e s e sudden u n
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I
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l
Fu
Ric h ard C
t
u ri s m
52
.
L on d l F t r i m
B erk l y C l ( M C t
s
a e,
e e
,
“
a
u u
.
:
s
c
:
D
n P
It s
u ch a
op m t Cont nt
b li h ing Co rp o r t i o n
e vel
u
s
en
e
,
a
,
M th od ol ogy
1 9 7 1) p 8
and
e
.
.
”
,
in E d u
c ti on
a
al
“
”
predict ab le evolution ary system ch a nge s syste m bre aks
Since m an find s him self in the evolution ary m a trix of s o ci al
system s his future will always contain unpredict a ble a nd in
e radic a ble surpri s e
In re se a rch a nd m ethod ologic a l study o f alternative future s
the futuris ts u se m any s ophi s t ic a ted mod ern tool s s uch a s c o m
puters and simul ation g am e s H o w ever the m ost import ant
res ource o f th e futurist continue s to be hum a n re as oning power
“
He often seeks t o bre ak aw ay from conve ntion al cognitive pro
‘
‘
c e d u re s and engage in
lateral re as oning t o probe system
‘
2
bre aks or weigh counter intuitive pos s ibilitie s
The c o m
puter i s the most important mech ani c al tool Delphi m e t h o d o l
ogy simul ation mo dels the scen ari o m athe m atical te chnique s
o f multiple correlation factor analysis cros s -imp act and trend
imp act analysis ar e all res ource s for futures re s e arch
“
I f Alvin T o ffl e r is right th a t all educatio n springs from im
age s of the future and al l e du c ation cre ate s im age s O f the fu
” 3
ture
then th e rel ation ship of e ducation and future s studie s
will be mu tu ally profit ab le to b oth dis ciplines L ord A sh by
former m aster o f Cl are College C ambridge University h as
s ugge sted th at in th e p a st the an a lys is o f th e future h as b een
”
“
the province of proph ets rather th an s cholars Now he s aid
‘
“
universities face the que stion Should prophecy b e come an
”
4
?
a c ad e m i c di scipline
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Contempor a ry E du cation :
A B aseline for F uture s Stu dy in E duc ation
Granting th at the stu dy of educ a tion al futures i s ne ce s s ary
we still need t o e stablish a b ase o f contemporary educ ation al
tren ds and innov a tion s from which t o proj ect future altern a
t iv e s I n th e p as t fifteen ye ars the s chool s h ave been almost
in und ate d with efforts of every con ceiv a ble kin d t o inj ect s ome
ingredient o f ch ange or inn ovation M any o f th e s e innov ation s
h av e b een attempts t o fa ce current problem s an d need s Am ong
the most pres s ing is sue s h a ve been :
A Controversy over e qu a lity of educ ation al o ppo rt u
,
.
.
.
.
nit y ;
B
Cl ash b etwe en cognitive an d affe ctive views of e du
c ation ;
.
rold G S h Th E d c tio l S i ifi c c f h F t ( W h i gto D C Wor ld F t re S oci t
1 972) p 2
R
d o m Ho
Al m T ffl
i E d c ti o
To mo o w Th R o l
d L
i
f
f h F t
1 9 7 4) p 1 9
M l col m G S c l l Aft r h Fir t 1 0 0 Y r Wh ith r t h U i r t Th Ch o i c l f Hi h
E d c t i o X II ( Ma r ch 1
2
Ha
.
3
v
o
gn
na
u a
an e o
t
e
u u re
n
as
n,
.
.
:
u u
e
an
us e ,
y,
e r, e
.
e arn
ng
or
rr
:
e
e o
t
e
u u re
n
n
u a
.
a
u a
e
.
.
4
ane ,
.
.
n
u
y,
“
e
t
e
s
e a s,
e
e
n
ve
si
y,
”
e
r
n
e
o
g
er
,
53
C C on fl ict over the ed ucation of culturally diffe rent
groups ;
D E m erging power rel ation ships in s chool control ;
E Altern atives to tradition al s c ho oling ;
F S chool s and the counter cultur e ;
G Technology an d s c hooling ;
H Fin an ci al problem s u shering in the e mph asis on
acc ountability
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
The attempt to r e solv e th e s e is s u e s h as introdu ce d th e follo w
ing contemporary e du cation al i nn ovation s or e mph as e s :
A Curriculu m reform
Going b ack abo ut tw e nty ye ars th e r e h as b ee n a cyc l e of
“
”
di scipline cente red curri c ulum reform
a r eve rsion b a c k to
e mph asis on th e ac ademic subj ec t T he cyc l e fo l lowin g this is
”
“
“
fo c u sing on total curri c ulum T he fore c ast i s th at tota l c ur
”
“
riculum will pe ak out and m e rge into hum anisti c c ur
”
riculum E lem e nts o f this ar e now e m e r gi n g i n such a c ti v iti e s
as v alu e s cl arifi c at io n program s and l ow-k e y s e ns itivit y group s
in e lem ent ary schools
.
.
,
.
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.
B Stud e
e r e d t e ac h ing i s e xpr e s s e d in th e c on cept o f
c ontin uou s progres s in dividu aliz ed instru c tion no ngrading
v e rtical grouping and alt e rnati v e s c hool s All th e s e inno v a
tion s are atte mpts to m ee t stud ents w h e r e th ey ar e and an swe r
their in di v idu al ne e d s
nt cent
.
,
,
,
.
,
.
C De s e gregation of s c hool s e nfor ce d bu ss in g pr e s c rib e d
c ultura l and e thni c stu di e s h a ve b e e n introduced to prom ot e
e qu ality of opportunit y
,
,
.
.
D I n c r e as ing u s e of t ec hno l ogy 1 8 found in programm e d
le arn i ng c omput e r -as s is t e d te a c hing and adv an ce d audio
v is u al r e so ur ce s
”
” “
“
E E m ph asis o n lifel ong l e arning with drop out
drop in
c ap ability an d e du c ation al opportunit y for pe r son s from pr e
kindergarten to O l d age i s b e ing d e veloped
F Current fin an ci al stri c tur e s on a l l cl as s e s o f publi c
elementary se c ond ary s c hool s u ni v ersiti e s a s w e l l a s pri v at e
c oll e ge s h a v e introdu c e d the c on c e pt of ac c ountabilit y Acc ou n
s
in
turn
re
quir
e
s
at
le
a
st
s
om
e
qu
antifi
c
ation
o
f
re
s
u
l
t
t ab ilit y
“
”
“
Thu s m e as urable obj ectiv e s an d t e ach e r c om p e t e n cy b a s e d
”
c urri c ulum s h ave b ee n introdu c e d into e le mentar y s ec on d ar y
and po st -se c ond ary e duc ation
E du c ation al futurism e nters wh en w e t urn from th e pr e s e nt
”
“
?
e du c ation al s c e n e and ask Wh ere d o w e go from h e r e
Sin ce
ther e m ay b e syst e m bre aks and lin e ar c h ange i s mo st doubtful
?
w h at are the future alt e rnati ve s for th e ye ar 20 0 0
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Four propo sitions m ay b e cons idered e ssenti al to the educ a
t io nal signifi c an ce of the future First we mu st work o u t an d
c hoos e ration ally among e duc ation al a ltern ative future s S ec
ond th e planning of a continuum of lifel ong educ ation al e xpe ri
e nce s mu st b e so thorough an d s atisfying th at publi c s upport is
ra ll i e d to provid e fin anci al re source s Third th e continuing
e du c ation pro c e s s both from the te a c hing and le arning end s
c an be r e fin e d and d evelop e d in such a way as t o e limin ate
pr e s e nt prob l em s in th e d e vel opment of an effective le arning
e n v ironm ent Fourth ide as resourc e s and potenti al inn ov a
tion s are alre ady av ail ab le on the U S educ ation al scen e to
provid e th e opportunity for a lin e ar progres s toward a far more
s atisfying edu c ation al experien c e
Pos sibl e syst e m bre aks vitally affe cting s cho ols might o cc u r
w hi c h c ou l d bring on horrib l e r e sults or on the positive side
wh at is n ow u nim agin abl e c ons tru ctive ch ange On th e n e gativ e
sid e th e pot e ntiality of nucle ar war ; world wi d e famin e with
un c h ec ke d po l ut io n of the e nvironm e nt and c ritical d e pletion of
n atural r e sour ce s ; an d a s o c i al r e volution produ c ing an ar c hy in
a s oci e ty u nabl e to provid e control s could thr e aten complete
d e s t ru c t ion o f the e du c ation al syst e m we kn ow tod ay
Pos iti ve s y st e m br e aks might r e s ult from d e velopm e nts in
autom ation an d cyb e rnation th at woul d in c re as e production to
su c h an ex t e nt as to provid e mu c h mor e l e is ure tim e for e du c a
tion D evel opm e nt in c ommuni c ations might b e s o u nim agina
b ly gr e at as to pro v id e a cc e ss to stor e d inform ation world wi d e
th at w o u l d r ev o l utioniz e pr e s e nt in stru c tion al method s Fi
n all y d e ve l op m e nt in m e di c in e ge n e ti c s ge ri atric s and
bio c h e mistr y might r e s ult in n e w knowl e dg e and t ec hnique s
th at wou l d fa c ilitat e the e du c ation of a pers on through d rugs
c h e mi c al s tran splants and dire c t brain stimu l ation
H a v ing h e dge d th e future with syste m bre ak pos sibilitie s let
u s c on sider the m ost lik e l y e du c ation al futur e s d e vel opm e nt
A O ne e du c a ti o na l fu tu res e l em ent o n w hi c h a l l fu tu ri s ts
agre e i s th e co n ti nu e d d e v e l o p m e nt of e d u c a t i o n a l t e c hn o l ogy o r
t e c hno l ogy wi t h e d u c a t i o n a l i mp l i c a t i o ns Her e the as s umption
i s th at th e c ompute r wi l l b e r e fi n e d further to b ecom e ever m or e
u s e ful for in stru c tion individu aliz ed p a c ing e du c ation al m an
age me nt an d inform ation storag e and r e triev al The fantasti c
d ata storage and r e triev al c ap a c ity of l as e rs m ay e n able them
to sup e rce d e c ompute rs I B M h as alre ady d eveloped an eight
c o l or e d l as e r b e am mem ory storage syste m which c an re cord
on e hundred mi ll ion bits of information on a s qu are inch of
photographic film A further d evelop ment a sso ciat e d with l as
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55
ers but not completely depend ent on the m i s hol ogr a phy The
hologr a ph i s a photogr a phic record o f an interference pattern
b etwe en re fl ected light w ave s from an obj ect a n d a se cond w ave
of interfering light A three -di men sion a l re al i m a ge o f the O b
n
i
s
produced
which
one
c
a
se e around by changing pos i
e
c
t
j
tion s The gre ate st promis e here i s the po s sibility o f three
dimen sion a l T V a nd m otion picture s and micros cope s th at
would dis play the thre e dimen sion a l structu re o f complex
m olecul es All O f the s e com mu nic ation pos s ibilitie s will m ake
“
pos sibl e a n ew type o f e du c a tion al fa cility c alle d the Central
”
I nstruction al Development and Di s semin ation Center It will
electronically b e am ins tru ction al m ateri al s t o school s and
home s m a king u se of worl d wid e d at a b anks ( form erl y kn ow n
a s librarie s ) This will es pe ci a lly f a cilit a te lifel ong le arning with
individu al programming through a h om e com puter
One further technologic a l d evel op ment m ay b e applie d
physiol ogic ally to th e le arner eith e r in t h e form of direct el ec
t ro nic commu nication vi a impl ante d electrod es th at stimul ate
the brain or the u se o f drugs (h ormone s o r en z ym e s ) to facilitate
le arning
B Th e c u rri cu lu m of t h e e d u c a ti o n a l fu tu r e wi l l rep re s en t a
r ec o n c ili a t i on of t h e c o gn i ti v e v e r s u s aff e c t i v e c o nfl i c t
R ec ent
ye ars h ave s een the re emph as is o n fu n d am ental co gnitive
skills a s citi z en groups h ave organiz e d t a sk forc e s t o se e k re sto
ration o f 3 R s m aste ry fo r all stud ent s Howev er the affective
aspe cts of le arning h ave b een promoted through th e ins ight s of
hum anistic ps ych ology on the place of motivatio n an d v alu e s in
prom oting effi cient le arning E spe cially o ne c an expe c t a more
comfort abl e s o cio -emotion al atm osphere for the six t o twe lve
ye ar ol d s Th e d e vel op ment of the cycl e o f hum anistic cu r
ri c u l u m h as b een sugge sted alre ady This h um anistic e m ph as is
al so c al ls for m axim um individu ali z ation o f le arning which c an
only b e provid e d if m any e du cation al options are ope n This
wo ul d in clu d e p rovision for the h an dicapped th e gifte d alt e r
n ative s cho ol s c areer an d vo cation al choice s as well as th e
tradition al ac a demic track
I n high er e du c ation there will b e furthe r c on c e rn with th e
bro ad d efi nition o f educ ation to e m brace a l l elem ents of the
college ex perie n ce the extracurricul ar as e s se ntial fo r a l l
around stu d ent dev elopment
E ven m ore s eriou s fin an ci al pr o ble ms of s upporting the edu
c at io n a l s ys te m both public and p rivate will forc e the d evel op
m ent of e du c ation al go al s stated as i n struction al me as urable
o bj ective s of the curriculu m to m eet the requirements of a c
co untability S uch in s truction al obj ective s ne e d no t con fl ict
with the go al of individu aliz ing educ ation s ince the ins t ru c
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56
,
go als might be devel ope d o n the s ame su bj ect for stu
dents O n th ree program p aths such a s C areer Pre Technical
and Pre -College
C Th a t t h e o rg an i z a t i o n of e d u c a ti o n w i ll c h ang e i s c e rt a i n
Alre ady th e d evelopm ent tow ard openne ss i s s e en in m any in
novation s th a t are directed tow ard the in dividu ali zing o f the
e the re will b e ch ange s in
Fin an ci al consid er a tions
e expe rimentation in this
woul d permit high s chool
t io n a l
,
,
.
.
.
plan s ( 4 5 days o f s c hoo l 1 5
d ays o f v ac ation ) evening high s chools an d four -d ay s chool
weeks r e pres ent innovations which m ay be wid espre ad even by
1 9 8 5 I t h as been s ugge sted th at the fl exib le all ye ar s choo l m ay
emerge as th e ins titution most cap ab le of ad apting t o the n eed s
of the individu al and the ch anging s o c i e ty B ec aus e s uch a
school m ak e s o ptimum u s e of time it m ay prove th e mos t
economically e ffi c ient as well
D E qu a l l y c e rt ai n a s t e c hn o l ogi c a l d e v e l op m en t w il l b e t h e
The ste reotype of
ch ang e d r o l e of t h e t e a c h e r f o r t he y e a r 2 0 0 0
one t e a c he r p e r c l as s p er su bj ec t pe r period will give way to a
more comple x functioning which will involve the te a c her in at
l e ast fo ur prim ary op e ration s : spe ci alist i n spe cifi c te aching
rol e s ; t e aching t e am m e m b e r ; differenti ated staff spe ci alis t ;
and guide in individu ali z ed in stru c tion The multiplic ity o f
functions th at will b e s ubs um e d u nder the se different are as
indi c ate th at the t e a c he r of 20 00 will n ee d t o b e a profes s ion al
e v en b e tter trained th an tod ay
E T he fi nal report from th e N ation al B o ard o n Gradu ate
E duc ation c ompl e t e d this ye ar d e s crib e s s om e s ign ificant
5
tr e nd s i n high er e ducation Future e duc ation al nee d s in dic ate
a st e ady r e du ction in d em and for P h D s to s e rv e in college s
thro ugh the 1 980 s A reduce d rate of growth i n R e s e arc h an d
D e v elopm e nt expenditures will kn ock o ut still other need for
doctorat e s Add to this th e c ontinuing decline in total a m ount of
finan cial s upport av ail able for grad u at e stud ents and the in
cr e as ed n umb er o f wom en an d minority stud e nts s e eking
n and a period o f adj u stm ent s eem s in e v it a
therefore h as i s sued a c all for i n
al B o ard
e nt at io n with nontradition al program s s e rving
”
s an d for the e n c our ag e ment o f gr e ater diversity
v a c ations ) F our qu arter and
45 15
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Phil i p W S n
( J nu a r y 1 9 1 97 6) p
5
.
a
,
ea
“
o s,
.
1
Gr
t
a d ua e
,
c ool U rg d t o
S h
s
e
Ex
p ri m t
e
en
“
,
o c
Th e Ch r ni l e
f Hi g h e r E d u
o
c ti o
a
n
.
57
“
among gradu at e s c hool s T he n e w cli e nt e l e in mind c ould b e
o l der stud e nts ful ly e mploy e d o r p art time stu d e nts no nre s i
d e nti a l stud ents and sp e ci ally tailored program s for c o mmu
nit y c oll e g e t e a c h e rs m any of whom c urr e ntl y fall into a n o
m an s l an d of profe s sion al pr e p aration betwe e n Ph D an d s e c
“
”
ne w c l i e n t e l e i nt ro
o nd ary l e v e l trainin g Thi s c o n c e rn f o r
d u c e s t he fina l fu tu res e d u c a ti o na l c hang e whi c h m a y b e t he m o s t
t
e
c
b
e
e
e
l
o
m
e
n
o
l
l
t
o
s
e
o
r
as t
d
v
h
r
o
b
a
l
a
p
f
f
p
“
“
F Lif e l o ng l e arni ng
c on t inu i ng e d u c a t i on
a d u l t l e a rn
” “
”
N ont rad i t i o na l a re s o m e of t h e t e rm s de s c ri bi ng ane du
i ng
c a ti o na l c li e n t e l e whi c h b y 2 0 0 0 wi l l a s k f o r e d u c a t i o n al op p o r
”
“
Within t h e l ast t w o ye ar s th e
tu ni ti e s fro m p a b lu m t o p ro b a t e
numb e r o f le arn e rs a ge 3 5 or o l d e r e nrol le d in som e fo rm o f
adu l t e du c ation h as in cr e as e d
With in c r e asing l e is ur e
tim e e ar ly r e tirem e nts an d ac ce s sibility of e du c ation c ontin u
in g e du c ation is ex p ec t e d to fl ouri sh to su c h an ex t e nt th at th e
”
“
2 1 s t C e ntur y m a y w ell b e c a lle d T h e A ge of E du c ation
S uch a
”
“
le arnin g so c i e ty wi ll r e quir e a phi l os oph y of c ontinuing e du
c ation c om m e ns urat e t o its pot e ntia l as a so ci al forc e A A
Liv e ri gh t former s ec r e t ar y of th e I nte rn ation al Con gre s s o f
Univ e rsit y A du l t E du c ation h as sugge st e d in Al v in E uric k s
Ca mpu s 1 9 8 0 a propos a l for a c o lle g e o f c ontinuing e du c ation
c ompos e d o f four i nstitut e s T h e s e wou l d b e :
1 T h e I nstitut e for P e rson a l and F ami l y D evel o pm ent
w hi c h wou l d h el p th e adu l t in a c hi ev ing m aximu m e ffe c
t iv e ne ss in fami ly and p e rs on al r e l ation s ;
2 T h e I ns titut e for H um an iti e s and Lib e ra l D evel opm e nt
w h i c h w o uld prom ot e s elf r e a l i z atio n and p e r s on al
ful fi ll m e nt ;
3 T h e I nstitut e for O cc up atio n al and Profe s s ion a l D e
v e l o p me nt wh i c h wo u l d m ee t th e n ee d s o f t h e adu l t a s
w o rk e r ; an d
4 T h e I nstitut e for Ci v i c and S o c i a l D ev e l opm e nt wh i c h
wo u l d pr e p ar e th e adu l t for p arti c ip ation i n communit y
6
n ation a l and w orl d a ffairs
I n c on cl u din g this look at promi sing e du c ation al futur e s we
mu st not e th at th e first st e p to w ard th e s e d e sirabl e a l t e rna
t iv e s o f 2000 is an hone st ev a l u ation o f so m e t h r e at e nin g pre
“
s e nt r e a l iti e s I n a startl ing arti cl e Murd e r i n A c ad e m e : T h e
”
D e mis e o f E du c ation Fr e d M He c k inge r stat e s and do c um e nt s
“
a t h e sis th at Am e ri c a i s in he ad l ong retr e at from its c om mit
”
m e nt to e du c ation H e c it e s e vid e n ce s s u c h a s th e v otin g d o wn
o f 54 % o f a ll s c hoo l bond i ss u e s in 1 9 7 5 as c ompar e d to 1 1 %
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A A Liv
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u ic h ( N
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58
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righ
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t
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L
ea n n e e n
p
t P re
De l acor
r
e
Pl an fo r Continuing Ed u c ation
ff
i g N v r E ds: A
s s , 1 968 )
157
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”
in Ca mpu s 1 9 8 0 ,
ed.
Al v i
nC
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Kahn H erman and Wiener Anth ony J The Ye a r 2 0 0 0 N Y :
The M acmillan Company 1 9 6 7
Kauffm an Dr aper L F uturism and Future Studies : D ev e l op
m en t s i n C l as s ro o m I ns t ru c t i o n Washington D C : N a
t io n al E duc ation As soci ation 1 9 7 6
Mo od Alexand er M The Fu tu re of High e r E d u c a ti o n N Y :
M c Graw Hil l 1 9 7 3
M o rph e t E dg a r L D es igni ng E d u c a t i o n F o r t h e Fu tu re 5 vol
—
Y
An E ight State Proj ect N
: Cit ation Pre ss 1 96 7 1 9 6 8
Pulli am John D and B owm an Jim R E d u c a t i o n Fu turi s m
Norm an O K : University o f Okl ahom a Pre s s 1 9 7 4
Ru bin L oui s e d The Fu tu re of E d u c a t i o n : P ersp e c ti v e s o n
To m o rro w s S c h o o li ng B oston : Allyn and B acon 1 9 7 5
Sh ane H arold G Th e E d u c a t i o n a l S ignifi c an c e of t he Fu tu re
B loomington I ndi an a : Phi Delta Kapp a E d uc ation al
F o und ation 1 9 7 3
Vintage
T offl e r Alvin e d L e a rni ng
T o mm o ro w
B ooks 1 9 7 4
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60
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THE M A K I N G OF FU T U RE MI N I S T E R S
John Killinger Ph D
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,
.
H aving h ad the experience o f meeting my young architect o n
an airplane I continued for several we eks under its spel l I
found in fact th a t my cl airvoyant fri e nd s observations about
the c hurch d e liv e red s o c as ually and almost n aively grew in
impo rt an c e to me until they ne arly b e c ame an o bs e ss ion
It was during this period when my mind coul d turn t o little
els e but would autom atic ally revert to our di scu ss ion of futuris
ti c s th at I h ad a strange and wond erful d re am
I n the dre am I found mys e lf tr ans ported to a se minary c am
pu s sev eral d ecad es hence visiting with the future min isters
and te a c hers of the church my architect friend h ad envis ion ed
As in mos t dre am s wh at i s re ason able and wh at in fact exis ts
sto od in no opposition t o e ach other N or sh all I in rel ating wh at
I c an remember o f th e c ontent of th at dre am b e at any p ains to
s e parate them I sh all simply report as ad equ at e ly and a c cu
rat e l y as I am able wh at I s aw an d he ard on th at unu su al
c ampu s
I should s ay at th e outset th at my im pre s s mns of the c ampu s
its e lf are rather h azy Although I s aw m any things in cl e ar
d etail ite m s of p ano ramic m agnitud e were oft e n le s s th an pre
c i s e I distinct l y recal l however a con stant se nse of am az ement
at the ae sth e tic p l e as ur e afforded by the ge neral e nvironm e nt
T her e was a fe eling of tran quillity ev e rywhere in the bu ildings
as well as on the ground s though n ot o f id le tran quillit y for
mu c h s ee m e d to be h appening at all tim e s
I b e l ieve th e re was a very agree able u se of s p ace in th e buil d
ings so th at I nev e r expe rien c ed a feeling of eith e r crowded ne s s
or lon e lin e s s Often begin to re mem b e r gre en plants growing
indoors providing a s e ns e of fre shne s s and serenity though
wh en I tr y to fo c u s on the m in any p articul ar s e tting I am
un able to do s o T he s ame elu sivene ss o c curs when I attempt to
recall th e plu sh c arp e ting which I ass o ci at e with th e room s and
h al l ways The m oment I con centrate on it I b ecome u ns ure and
wond e r if th e fl oors we r e not h ardwo o d bro ught t o a b e autiful
c l e ar sh e e n with o cc asion al rugs of bold D anish or modern
Persian des ign
M y guid e through the extraordin ary c ampu s ( I c onfe ss th at
e ven he came and we nt according to my m od e of per ce ption ) was
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V
r i P of o of P chi g d Lit r t a t V d rb il t U r it N a h ill Te
H h
p rform d co l t t er ic e for Ar m ch p l i
a p ke w rit r
d i i d em
d
co nfere c f cilit at or
F ro m THE S E CON D COM I N G OF THE CHU RCH b y J oh n Kill ger Cop righ t 19 7 4 b Ab i gd o Pr
D r Killinge
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ns u
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a u re
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an e
ns an
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e ss
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61
both a stu dent and not a stu d ent there Th at is h e appe ared to
identify him self with all the others who w e r e there yet trans
c e nd e d th em in s om e ways as th ough he h ad alre ady pro g re s
s ed th rough all th e stage s of le a rning and were now beyon d the
s cene H e sh all re main n amele s s to the re ader as indeed h e did
t o me in the entir e ty of th e dr e am
Perh aps in the light of the foregoing p aragraph I should s ay
a word here about the ch aracter o f the stud e nts in this s e mi
n ary As I was told b y my guid e th ey were neith e r admitted nor
gradu ate d by the tediou s r e c ording proce s se s at u se in former
tim e s They simply came when it was time fo r th eir s e min ary
expe ri e n c e and left when th e time w a s ripe for them to do so
Only h aving left they c ontinu ed to return as oft e n as th e y fe lt
th e ne ed or th e ability to profit from d oing so B e ing told this I
notic e d th at m any l e arn e rs pr e s ent appe ar e d to b e in th e ir
middle or l at e r ye ars s ome even appro a c hing s e ne s ce n c e T her e
—
t
s ee m e d o b e no artifi c i al di v isions am ong th e m all w e r e e n
gage d in th e activity of l e arning an d growing regardl e ss o f ag e
My guid e s aid th at m ost mini st e rs in th e c hur c h o f th at tim e
found it u s eful an d normal t o return to a s e min ary for at l e ast a
month a y e ar to re -engage th e m s e lv e s in v arious probl e m s at a
m ore inten s e le v e l th an wa s oft e n po s sible in th e p ari sh T h ere
was no lit e ral sp e c ifi c ation th at th e y mu st do s o an d no rul e
r e g arding th e ir abs e n ce from the churches T he y m e rely c am e
and w e nt as th e n ee d aros e m aking wh ate v er arrang e m e nts
we r e n ec e ss ary at th e tim e
Did n t the chur c h members compl ain of th e loos e n e ss o f this
?
arrange m e nt I inquir e d of th e guid e No h e s aid th e y re
g ard e d it as important to them as we l l as to th e min ist e r and
b e s id e s th e c hur c he s were structur e d in su c h fashion as to
m ak e th e r e gul ar att e nd an c e of the minist e rs unne ce s s ary T h e
ide a of th e c l e rgy a s e n abl e rs so w id e ly dis c u ss e d in th e si x ti e s
an d s eve nti e s h ad b e c ome widely acc e pt e d in th e c hurch e s and
now th e l aity did m u c h of the actual mini st e ring work of th e
p arishe s le aving the clergy fre e a s s ort of experts in r e sid en ce
T h is is as goo d a plac e as any to introdu ce th e c urri c ul ar
structur e of th e new semin ary for it will h el p to ex p l ain h o w
ministers o c c u pied in c hur c he s for mo st of th e ye ar c an r e turn
to th e s e min ary an d e nter with any integrity into th e ongoing
th e ologi c al program Perh aps it wi ll b e of int e r e st to thos e who
h a v e be en vitall y int e r e s t e d in upgrading m e thod s of c ontin u
i ng e ducation in s e min arie s but h ave always h ad the d e sp e rate
fe e ling th at e v e n th e b e st continuing e du c ation program s are
m e re adj u n c t s or step c hild ren o f th e regul ar p rogram s
L et u s b e gin w ith the c ine m e t ronic s lab whi c h I found to b e a
fas c in ating are a of th e futu re campu s I had s ee n m an y room s
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62
wh e re e arne st dis cu s sion s appe ared t o b e taking pl ace but h ad
seen nothing which I id entifi ed as form al cl as s e s in any of th e
dis cip l in e s so famili ar to m e when I was in s eminary Accord
ingl y I inquired of my h ost about the l ecture s in church his tory
Bible and th eology as s uming th at it woul d b e very interesting
to enter among a few of the m an d rem ark how th e y differed if
at all from wh at I h ad known
At th at he laugh e d good n aturedly and u sh ered m e into a
s ec tion of th e m ain building w hos e appe aran c e resembled th at
of th e l angu ag e l aboratorie s pre sently found in m any uni v er
sitie s Ther e w e r e perhap s forty or fifty d e sks or cons ole tops
e ach mounted by a set of he ad phone s a sm all switchbo ard and
an ass ortm e nt of vi e wing screen s the l arge st of which might
e asily h ave be e n a television s creen
At my guid e s invit ation I s at at o ne of th e d e s ks an d fitt e d
th e h e adphon e s to my e ars
”
“
Now he s aid c ons ulting a s m all m anu al whi c h l ay on th e
“
surface of the d e sk nam e a pe riod or person in theologi c al
”
histor y th at fas c in ate s you
I b e liev e my first impu l se was to n am e Augu stin e or L uth e r
but fearing th at e ith e r would s eem an O bviou s and u ns o ph is t i
c at e d choi ce I prono un c ed the name of T hom as B rad w ard ine I
h ad on c e h ad a church history profe s sor who h ad written a
the sis on B rad w ard ine and h e h ad s pent mor e tim e on him in
c l as sroom l ec tur e s th an on any of th e p opul ar r eforme rs N ow I
c ould r ec a l l almos t n othing of t he m an or his thought so c ons id
e r e d him a r e a s on able c hoi c e on which t o te st th e m achinery
b efor e m e
T h e guid e found th e proper refe r e n c e in the manu al adj u ste d
a few swit c he s on the con sol e and in stantly I was n ot on l y
h e aring about B rad w ard ine and Gabriel Bie l an d th e whol e
nomin alist c ontrov e rsy in the l at e me di e v al c hurch but w as
s e eing a movi e o n the s cre e n a s well d e picting s c e n e s in whi c h
th e e min e nt th e ologi ans of th at d ay argu e d and c ont e nd e d for
their p o sition s
I was am az ed I n quick succe s sion I tuned in to d e pi c tion s of
th e c oun c il s of Ni c a e a Chal ce don an d T rent th e c ontrov e r s y
b e tw ee n Au gu stin e and Pel agiu s H e nry V III s procl am ation of
th e A c t of Suprem a c y an d John W e s le y s e xperi e n ce at A l
”
“
d e rsg at e
Wh at a w ay to l e arn history " I re m arked as I re
moved th e h e ad s et
”
”
“
“
Don t ge t up s aid my mentor There s mor e
He pr e s s e d a button an d another ar e a of the c on s ol e lit up
”
“
?
How s your bib li c al Gree k h e as ked
”
“
Atro c io u s I m afraid I s aid
”
“
Then w e ll start with simpl e verb form s
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63
An u ncomplic ate d sentence in k o i n e Gree k appe ared on an
oblong s creen
”
“
Tran sl ate it if y o u can s aid the gui de
“
The m an i s
throwing
I couldn t complete the s en
te nce
The guid e pu s h ed a red button
”
a j avelin
re ad the s creen Then the word s v anish e d
and new one s appe ared again in Gre e k This tim e I c oul d r e ad
”
“
the entire sentence I t s aid : The j avelin throws th e m an
A m a c hine with a sens e of hum or "
“
”
“
Alm os t all our b asi c te aching ex plain e d the guid e is pro
g ra m m e d for m achin e ins tru c tion : history B ible l angu age s
even s ociology ethic s anthropol ogy ps y c h o m yt h o l o gy an d
”
theology
”
“
?
B ut how
“
?
How c an th eology b e programmed Of co urse it c an t be
c ompletely B ut the history of theology can be an d stud ents c an
b e re quire d by th e m achin e s to re sp ond cre ati v ely to c e rt ai n
theo l ogical pu z zl e s whi c h h av e p erpl e x e d men for ag e s u t ili z
ing wher e pos sible th e insights of Spinoz a Sc hl e i e rm a c her T il
lich and other gi ant s of the ologic al di s c u s si on Wh e n th e stu
dent h as b een through a full regimen of tape s with on e of o ur
m a c hin e s he i s a pretty compe te nt the ologi an him self at l e as t
as far as he can b e e quipp e d out of the th e ology of th e p ast Th e n
”
h e i s re ady for his re a l work
The re al work as I was to l e arn c am e in the sm all group
se s sion s which were con sid e re d the he art of th e new th e ol o gi c al
training B ut th at i s getting ahe ad of my story My guid e h ad
one oth e r tri c k to sh ow m e at th e c on sole
This time fl ipping a b lue s wi tch he expl aine d th at I was now
to witn e s s s om e thing I was very like l y u npr e p are d for in my
own th e ologi c al training Actu ally as it turne d out it was not
theological at all but h ad to d o with th e improv e m e nt of cre at iv
ity and origin ality in thin king
“
”
“
T his i s on e of the n ewer c oncepts he s aid and we h av e one
th e two syste ms n ow being pion e er e d in this country T h e d e
v e l o pe rs of th e system b eli e v e th at on e of th e gre at e st i mp e di
m ents to fr ee and cr e ativ e the olo gic al work i s th e t e n d en c y o f
the mind to id oli z e old c on ce ptu ali z ation s and forg e t th at th e y
w e re on ce only tentativ e formul as T h e syst e m i s th e r e for e pro
gramm e d to di s rupt fi x at e d thinking by vario us visu al an d lin
gu i s t ic p l ay gra m s F or exampl e
As he t alk e d h e pu shed a combin ation of numb ers and t h e
o b l ong s c re e n lit up with th e se word s : B E D I M M E D B Y TH E
B L OAT O F TH E L I M B When I fitte d th e h e adphone s to my
“
e ars a tap e d voi ce s aid : This i s an exe rc i se i n word pl ay
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64
.
Please re cogniz e th e tr a dition al religi ou s phras e disguis ed
under the mut ated logogram Sil ently form the logogram o n
your lip s E nj oy th e freed om of the new formul ation Now we
”
sh all procee d t o a noth er ph r a se
Th e form er phr a s e v anished a nd a new o ne a ppe ared Th e
voice o n the tape provid ed i nstruction as before One a fter
another the phr a ses c a me a n d went : TH E KLAN DOM OF GO D
TH E B R IGG IN G O F GOAT N OO S E TH E Z ON E OF GOAD
DE B T ON TH E GRO S S TH E TH R OWN OF GOT
”
“
I w a s fas cin ated but a l so disturbed I d on t kn ow I s a id t o
“
my host This i s intriguing B ut s omething inside me feel s
”
une asy as if I we re bl aspheming or som ething
He l aughed
”
“
“
Not re a lly h e s aid Quite the contrary Word s an d phras e s
become blasphemou s th em selve s when fastene d u pon They l os e
their trans p aren cy their s ens e of di s covery Then it i s n e c e s
s ary to disu nite ourselve s from them in o rd er t o proceed to new
dis coveries
“
The s ame i s tru e o f vis u al im age s Th erefore the system
pres ents a ltern ate an d quite oppo site pictures o f s u c h ab stra c t
concepts as G o d m es siah faith love and s o o n F or example
G o d m ay b e re presented by such v ariou s im ages a a gul l fl ying
over a rocky sh oreline a gle aming s upercomputer or even an
e mpty s cr e en with n o picture at al l Love may be s e en as a
moth er cr a dling an infant as a government e mployee working
l ate at his de sk o r as a killer stan ding over his victim Th e
V i ewer is forc ed to r e cogniz e th e in finitely wide range of in
stan ces in which love ass um e s different form s even h atred an d
aggres s ion
“
Th ere i s on e wrinkle in the syste m I woul d like t o sh ow y o u
but ca n t b ecau se we re having s ome mechanic a l problem s the
engine ers h aven t cl eared up yet S ee this littl e instru m ent
H e han ded me a metal obj ect s imil ar in s h ape to a b al lpoint
pen
“
This is a l aser pen I t write s with light an d c an b e u s ed to
alter p atterns on the vid eo screen Cert ain exerci se s are pro
v id e d in which the stu dent i s asked to perform his own mut a
tions directly on phra s e s an d d rawi ngs fl a shed b e fore him The
m achine then re spon d s by further altering th e phrasing or con
fi gu rat io n s and re qu e sts the stud ent t o follow suit I have se en
‘
a cl ever im agi na tive stud ent ma ke u p to nine or ten pl ays with
”
the m achine before it m ove s on to a new problem
I h ad t o a d m it th at I felt t w o e motions sim ultaneou sly on e a
s ens e of awe an d excitement at th e s ophistic ation of the proc e s s
( de spite the me ch anic al br e akd own ) an d the other a fe eling of
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65
h aving been che ate d by not h aving s u c h pra c ti c e in my own
e xperien ce
My ho st ge nerou sly remin ded me th at p e rson s h av e u sed
simil ar method s fo r centurie s and th at the m achin e h ad m e r e ly
refined the m e ch anic s o f th em Playfulne s s and c re ativity h av e
always b een intim at e ly allied for it i s only in pl ay th at th e mind
bre aks its c u stom ary circuits and e xplor e s n e w t e rritory and
new combin ation s of d at a
Sitting in thi s m echanic al Sh angri -L a I cou l d n ot forb e ar
in quiring about the r e ading of books I h ad s ee n n o l ibrary at
all an d the library was on ce a ce ntral fe atur e of an y s e min ary
or university c ampu s Did n t th e stud ents re ad as th e y h ad i n
?
my d ay
”
“
“
N o t very mu c h rep lied by guid e We h ave large ly mad e th e
tran sition t o oral and im agisti c l e arning with litt le e mph asis on
lin e ar training Our stu dents ar e a ll rapid r e ad e rs of c ours e
and h ave b e e n sin ce the y wer e fiv e or si x ye ars old B ut mu c h of
their r e ading is d on e at tel e vision c on sol e s w h e r e th e e ntir e
coll e ction of th e Worl d I nformation C e nt e r i s at th e ir finge rtips
T h at inclu de s art dram a m ovie s and so on as w ell as ordin ary
printe d m ateri al s And for tho se who de sir e th e m of c ou rs e
th e re are still the old pob s though there i s little n e ed for them
”
anym ore
”
“
?
Pob s
“
?
Yo u did n t h av e pob s I m s orr y I did n t r e a l iz e w h e n th ey
‘
‘
cam e into u s e Pob i s an an agram for printout book I t s a
l oo s e l e af book o f ch e mi c all y tr e at e d p l as ti c l e a ve s c ap ab l e o f
r ece iving ph otot e l e graphi c im ag e s from a m a st e r print e r at th e
WI C They w e r e th e rage for a w hi le but n ow it s eve n g e tting
h ard to obtain m aint e n an ce for our tran smitt e r O cc asion a ll y
we g e t a stud e nt— u su ally an o l d e r on e— who still h as a stron g
lin e ar attachm e nt and s e e m s to r e quir e a pob B ut th e r e ar e n t
”
too m any anymor e
I d on t kn ow wh e th e r it was th e am a z e ment I fe lt or wh at in a
dr e am might p as s for fatigu e or h unge r but a this point m y ho st
s ugg e ste d a c h ange of p ace H e l e d m e into what app e ar e d to b e
a rel atively sm all e r ve rsion of a gym na siu m wh e r e a numb e r of
m en an d wo m en toge th e r w e r e p arti c ip ating in v ariou s kind s of
r ec r e ation al activiti e s S om e w e re working on p ara llel b ars
som e were d oing group c alistheni c s an d som e app e ar e d to b e
taking p art in s om e kind of y oga exe r c is e I fel t imm e di at e l y
more c omfortable at b eing in wh at wa s at l e ast a m or e f amili ar
s e tting
“
Was much e mph asis pl a ce d upon sports and p l ay a c tiviti e s in
”
?
your semin ary inquired my ho st
“
”
“
V ery littl e I s aid We p lay e d tag footb al l on th e l aw n an d
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66
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e nviron m ents We a lways d epend ed h e avily on gr a d e s a nd
”
qu ality -point average s and the like
”
“
“
Oh th at s no problem my hos t as sured me E ach stu d ent
is simply rate d when nece s s ary on a qu ality chart by his fellow
stud ents W e h ave found this t o be mu ch m ore ad e qu ate th an
former as s e s sments by te achers who se angle of vision o n th e
s tu dent tend ed t o be vertical an d no t h ori z ontal as the case i s
with b oth fellow stu dents and the pe opl e with whom th e person
”
will be working outside
I h a d t o admit the id ea w a s fe asible
By this time my h o st an d I h ad j ogge d a round the elev ate d
track several times and he led me through an air -scre en d oor
into a l arge room where there w as a swim ming pool We
spl ashe d into the water an d sw a m th e l ength of the pool s everal
time s then cr a wled into on e of the swirl b aths adj acent to it A s
the warm water whirle d ple as antly arou nd u s my guid e c o n
t inu e d his i ntroduction o f th e new se min ary program
One o f th e things we di s cu s s ed during this ple as ant interv al
was th e u se o f c h e m oth erapy in the new program A s yet s aid
the guide it w as in the experim e ntal stag e but showe d gre at
promi s e An outgrowth of the e arlier u s age of L S D and
m arij u an a as pe r c eption altering aid s the pre sent concern was
to find h armle s s dru gs which c oul d b e u se d und er c ontroll ed
c ondition s to re store b al an ce to i mp aired p e rson aliti e s an d in
du ce c on s ciou sne ss -e xp an ding practice s which wo ul d su b
se quently b ec ome auto m atic in stud ents w h o h abitu ally e x e r
c is e d t o o much re straint over their im agin ation s an d em otion s
“
H as n t here been o bj ection to this from puritanic al ch u rch
”
?
pe ople
I as ked
”
“
“
Some h e replied but the experiments are not highly pu b
lici z e d and th ey are being con d ucted on only th e most pr omis
ing re spon d e n ts with e xt re ih e ly c ap able su per vis ors I h ave
he ar s ome r e po rts p erh aps e x aggerate d th at Withih a d ec ad e
e very s e min arian will be routinely che cked by compute ri z ed
c hemi c al an alysi s an d will be provide d with d aily supplies o f the
additives re quire d b y his system I t m ay s ound preposterou s
but I am prep ared to b elieve it in th e light of Other rem arkable
”
inn ovation s in the p as t few ye ars
From th e b ath my host l ed me into a c arpete d d re s sing room
where e a c h of u s received a d eep m a s s age from the stu d ent
att e nd ants App arently I fell asl e e p o n the t able or p e rhap s my
dre am was te mporarily interrupte d for when I res um ed my
inspe ction o f th e s e min ary I w as with a differ e nt guide a
wom an o f more m ature ye ars tho ugh pre sentl y a stud ent in th e
semin ary We were sitting in a sm all comfort ab ly furnish e d
room with nine or ten other pe rson s
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68
I s uppose I simply intuited th at she w a s my hostes s a s no
exchange h a d th us far p a s s ed betwe en u s a n d we we re both
involved in the p rocedure s o f the entire group
I h ad b een in a simil ar group b efore I thought as this o ne
appe ared t o be functioning as a s ort of sh a ring o r sens itivity
group V ery person al things were being spoken in a m ost ope n
and c a s u a l fashion a s th ough tho se pre se nt were accu stomed t o
live c a ndid ly before o ne an oth er at al l time s N 0 topic w as t o o
intim a te for seriou s dis cu ssion and in the sp ace o f wh at m u st
h ave b e en t w o hours v ariou s person s aire d feelings o f e mo
t io n al distres s occup ation al u nc e rt ainit y se xu al difficulty an d
at t ra ction o r hostility toward other group p articip a nts My ho s
te s s spoke of he r sen se of fru stration at h aving entered the
ministry rath er l ate in life after t h e los s o f her hu sb and and o f
h a ving le s s time fo r h er vocation al fulfillm e nt th an m any others
h ad I thought her very gr a ceful and be autiful an d wond ered
how she could ever experience negative feelings about herself
Afterw a rd s as we s trolled through the ne atly manicured
ground s an d s at on a bench in an a lcove surround ed by a s e mi
circl e of boxwood s sh e talked of the import ance of the therapy
se ssion s t o her I conj ectured th at they mu st be e xtre m e ly
m e aningful to all who are involved in them Ho w m any stu
d ents I won d ered av ail ed them selves o f such p erson al growth
?
experien ce s
”
“
“
All th at I kn ow sh e s aid It i s n o t a re quire ment o f c ourse
?
B ut w h o woul d want to mis s it It i s a m arvelou s opp ortu nity
B esid e s how would on e proceed as a le ad er in a c hurch witho ut
?
first h aving h ad s uch experiences
It n o w o ccurre d to me a s it h ad not before th at this was the
new semin ary s m ethod of d evel oping group le adership— not by
rote te aching procedure s but by a ctu al p articip ation in gro wth
groups I asked w h o were the l ead ers in the se groups
“
”
“
I m n ot re ally sure sh e r e plied Y o u s e e we d on t always
att e nd the s ame group Circul ating is en c ouraged to d evelop an
‘
ability for instant im medi acy E ven le ad ers circul ate I t i s
entirely pos sib le th at groups m e et occ asion ally without any
le ad er s b eing pres ent
”
“
“
The tru th i s she s aid le a der s are awfully h a rd t o id entify
”
here I suppo se it h as to d o with the whole l e a d ership system
I confe s s e d th at I know nothing of the system It no w stru ck
m e th at while I h ad se en some person s w h o appe a re d to be
dis cu s sion le ad ers I had se en no on e whom I would re ally h ave
t a ken for a profe s sor
“
”
“
Oh she s aid we don t h av e profes so rs N o t for y e ars now I
und e rstand They re all at the GTC We h ave on ly adv anced
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69
‘
stud ents o r facilitators wh at they called fe llows wh e n I was
”
an undergradu ate ye ar s ago
”
“
“
Wait a min ute I ple ad ed It i s all t o o fast for me Wh at i s
?”
GTC
“
”
“
I m sorry she s aid
G T C i s Gen e ral Th e olo gi c al Cent e r
Th e re ar e two in this c ountry y o u know one in the E as t in N e w
York and th e other in S an Francis c o And there are s ev e ral
oth e rs aroun d th e worl d W e stern E u rope h as on e in Ge n e v a
They are sort of th eolo gical think tanks I suppos e you would
c al l th e m — so cieti e s of elitist schol ar s an d terribly c reative p e r
son s wh o intera c t with on e another and do th e ir work and th e n
”
com mu nicate the b e n efits o f it to the v ariou s s e min ari e s
“
?
You m e an y o u n ever s e e them You d on t h a ve profe ss or s
”
?
h ere
“
W e ll it really isn t a prob le m W e do hav e th e Te lly c om s
th at s Te l ec ommu nication Conferen ce s T hey are r e gul ar mul
t ic h anne l s e s s ion s in whi c h v ariou s topi c s are di s c u ss ed b y a l l
the profess ors who are con c erned with th e m Stu d e nts ar e on
the vid eo t o o and can e nter the di s c u s sion s Th e y re oft e n ve r y
exciting e sp ec i ally when on e o f th e fa c ilitators w ho i s e s p e ci all y
keen c hallenge s the po sition of on e or more of th e profes sors Of
c ourse th at s the way th ey ge t to b e profe s s ors On l y t h e
”
brighte st an d most arti c u l at e person s ar e c hos e n
”
“
?
?
How are th e y cho s e n B y a c ommitt e e
“
N 0 They a re propo s e d and vot e d o n by th e e ntir e popul ation
”
of stud ents in all the worl d s e min arie s
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“
WO W
’7
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“
E xc u se me
”
“
“
I m s orry I s aid
I w as j u st thinkin g about ho w radi c a l
”
th at woul d h ave sound e d wh e n I was a th e o l o gi c a l stud e nt
“
I s uppo s e so Th e radi c al s tod a y ar e tho s e wh o ins ist th at th e
power of s el ecting profe s s ors ought to b e ve st e d in the lait y o f
th e church The y a cc u s e th e s e min ari e s of e xc l u sivis m an d of
”
op e rating t oo in dep e nd ently of the c onstitu e n c y
”
“
?
How d o you fe e l about it
I a sk e d
“
Oh I d on t kno w I supp os e I am ol d e no ugh to b e e xc it e d by
the way things ar e now B ut I hav e gr e at re s p ec t for th e argu
”
m e nts of th e m or e radi c al voi c e s i n th e church
”
“
T e l l y c o m s I mu st reme mb er th at wh e n I wake up
I r ec a ll
h aving thought I t s e e med s uch a pra c ti c al w ay o f r e du c in g
o ve rh e ad by simply avoiding unn e c e s s ar y dup l i c ation o f fu n c
tion and l abor And fa c ilit ators I lik e d th e w ord I w as al s o
fas c in at e d by the glob a l dim e n sion th e c hurch and its trainin g
ce nt e rs h ad app ar e ntl y ad opt e d
”
“
I s there consid erab l e un animity in th e worl d c hurch
I
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70
a s ked to e n abl e th e v ariou s s e min arie s and centers t o con duct
”
?
profitabl e j oint dis cu ssions
“
”
“
Oh y e s replied my hoste s s Or perhaps the profitable dis
c u s s io ns h e lp to provid e the unanimity B ut either way there is
a gr e at function al h a rm ony in worl d Christi anity Much m ore
th an wh e n I was yo unger I t i sn t a unanimity of opinion y o u
u nd e rstand Only a willingnes s to pursue c e rt a in b asic go al s
w ith ab s olut e free d om regarding th e route s t o b e taken There
is n t th e parochi alis m of i ntere st there once was All the i s su e s
now— ev erything from educ ation and agri c ulture t o urb anology
”
—
and po liti c s ar e genuinely glob al i ss ue s
”
“
?
I s this a c omm on attitud e
“
I w o ul d s ay it i s Th e c hurch d oe sn t get the c r e dit for it of
c o ur se I think p e op l e j u st fi nall y r e aliz e d th at w e c ou l dn t
inh abit th e s am e t e rre stri al sp a ce an y l onge r w ithout thinking
of t h e w ho le w or l d an d p l an ning for eve ryb ody Th e c hurch j u st
s o rt o f tu n e d in on w h at eve r y bod y knew or at le ast on w h at
”
th ey s u sp ec t e d
”
“
“
Yo u m e ntion e d the glob al i s sue s I s aid How d o the se mi
”
?
n ary and th e church rel ate t o tho s e
“
I m sorr y
”
“
?
I m e an how is theology don e in rel ation to all th e i s su e s
“
Oh I s e e Y e s W e ll you mu st understand th at th e o l ogy i s n o
l on ge r r e gard e d as a l angu age u nto its e l f N O r e sp ec tab le
th e o l o gi an eve n at th e fa c ilitator le v e l is c omp e t e nt in th e ol
o gy al on e M ost ar e traine d in s eve ral dis c ip lin e s in c lu din g
ps yc ho l o gy s o c iology an d th e v ariou s arts U su a l ly it h as to do
with p e rson a l aptitu d e B ut th e r e ar e non e of t h e art ifi c al
bound arie s I re m e mb e r h aving e n c ount e r e d as an u nd e r
gradu at e Al l discip l in e s ar e r e gard e d as tool s or t ec hniqu e s for
th e s tud y of life its e lf— an d th e fu ll er th e too l kit t h e bett e r "
“
T his philos ophy i s impl e m e nt e d in th e GT Cs and in
s e min a ri e s b y in vo lv ing pro fe s sors an d fa c ilitators wh os e prin
c ipal w ork has l ain outs id e th e olo gy p e r s e Th e y know e nough
to b e c onv e rs ant th e olo gi c ally— ind e ed tod ay ev en the child r e n
in th e c hur c h e s are — but th e y ar e r e all y e x p e rts in fi e ld s s u c h as
so c i al e n gin ee ring ph arm ac e utic a l th e rapy and p s yc h o an
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t h ro po l o gy
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Abo ut this time we w e r e int e rrupt e d in our pl e as ant
c on ve rsation— I h ad no i d e a of th e tim e— b y m y ori gin a l ho st
w ho app e ar e d b efor e u s and s aid th at he r e a l ly wanted m e to
att e nd th e d ail y c as e stud y with him I th anked m y l ady fri e n d
w ho h ad e nt e rtain e d m e most gra c iou sly and we wal ked along
th e c ur v ing p athway to a s ort of op e n building wh e r e th e p art ic
ipant s in on e of th e pr e ann oun ce d c ase studi e s we re alre ad y
g ath e ring
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71
Here explain e d my host we were at th e mo st vit al p art o f the
s emin a ry u nd ertaking All other a spe cts of the stud ents
—
training technical physic a l therap eutic and even d evo
t io n al — c a m e int o play in the se se s sion s They were central to
the u nd erstanding O f h ow the se min ary fu nctione d
A young wom a n of Oriental des ce nt s at ne ar wh at I presumed
to be th e he a d o f the room there b eing a l arge v id e o s cre e n on
the wall slightly above an d to the right o f her he ad She b eg a n
the s e s sion by ad dr e ss ing the re st o f u s— perh aps twe nty in
— wh o
all
we re se a ted casu all y in a sort of ov al or circle
“
”
“
This i s S tu d y Section 1 8 A
she s aid
Our situ atio n for
”
to day will n o w be sh own t o y o u
At on ce the s cre en b ehin d her was filled with angry face s an d
loud ne arly h y ste ri cal voic es broke the quietne s s of the setting
It s oon bec ame e vid ent th at we were witn e s sing s ome kind of
po litical d em onstration
As th e film progre s s ed the sto ry th at unfol ded w e nt som e
thing like this : A city coun c il in a t own o f approxim a tely two
hundre d thou s and inh abit ants h ad j u st voted t o c an cel u ni
vehicul ar servic e— a kin d o f centrali z ed tran s portation
—
s ervice t o an outlying suburb an dis trict o n th e ground s th at
fed eral appropri ations h aving failed to m at e ri a li z e the city
tre as ury coul d n ot afford to continu e ope rations in the are a
The enormi t y of the situ ation for the re s id ents of the district
be c am e app arent t o m e wh e n it was p ointed o ut by my guid e
th at in dividu al vehicul ar tran sport a tion w a s no longe r pe rmit
ted within city bo un d arie s and th at ne arl y three th ous and five
hundred men wom en an d chil d re n woul d s ud denly b e l eft
with out l ocomotion for traveling to s chool s O ffi ce s and com
m e rc i al d es tin ations within the center of the city Some would
travel by bicycle very po s sibly b ut m any wo uld find th e with
d raw al of s ervi ce s a s evere i nconvenie nce in d ee d Th e persons
wh os e fa c e s h ad first fl as he d o n the s cre en were resid ents of th e
district wh o h ad walk e d s everal mil es in a m arch on the offi c es
of the city c oun c il an d were engaged in a vociferous protest Two
pe rson s were fi n ally arre ste d and one wom an h ad t o be ho s
pit aliz e d fo r exh au stion and hyperte ns ion
N ow bro ad ly put the cas e s tud y qu e stion for the d a y was :
How should th e church e s of the affe cted district re spond t o this
?
e mergen c y in t h e d ail y liv e s of th eir p ari shioners
As di s c u s s ion proce ed ed se veral fac e ts of the qu e stion w e re
d eline at e d
First wh at re action shoul d b e m ad e to the r e al situ ation i e
?
the los s of v ehicu l ar s e rvice Wh at politi c al force was av ailable
in the churche s th em s e lves b oth the churche s within the are a
?
and sympathizing churche s o utsid e for redre s sing the problem
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Could legal action be instituted again st th e federal governm ent
the city governm ent o r both to re store the se rvice which h ad
?
b een interrupted
S econd wh at imm edi ate help coul d b e provid ed to the i nc o n
?
Fo r example wh at a rr a nge
v e nie nc e d person s in the are a
ments c ould be m ad e for d elivery of nece s s ary fo od and other
?
provision s Wh at eme rgency me as ures coul d b e drafte d for the
?
continuan ce o f the children s e du c ation
T hird wh at kind s of foru ms if any shoul d be arr ange d t o
?
provid e an airing of the people s griev an ce s Wh a t spe akers in
?
the c ity sh ould be as ked to p arti c ipate in such he arings
F ourth h o w did any of the t e ach ings o f Christianity as s um e
?
p articul ar relevance in this re al c risis Wh at kin d of so ci al an d
p e rson al gro wth might b e aimed at in the solution of th e prob
?
le m
S oon the group had s ub divided into sm all e r m ore man age
abl e u nits to grapple with th e as pe c ts of the situ ation The
division did not o ccur h aph a z ardly but with wh at app e ared to
m e to be a high d egre e of o rd erline s s and int e llige n ce
persons h avin g spe ci al legal s oci al psychol o gi c al or oth er qu al
ifi c at io ns being d eploy e d to the units wh ere their s kills might
prove most u seful Almost at on c e the groups we re e agerly at
w ork in variou s p arts of the room produ c ing a gre at bu z z of
argument and conv e rs ation
My h ost soon fel l to di s cu ss ing the whol e pl an and merits of
t h e case study syst e m with me and thereby prevent e d my fol
lowing the pre sent to pic to its fin al dispos ition B ut wh at he h ad
to s ay proved very enlightening and I could h ardly grieve at
h avin g mis s e d an ything
Th e r e wo ul d be mu c h mor e to the p re s ent c ase th an a m er e
an alysis of the fa c tors which h ad b een outline d he expl ain e d
B e fore th e y were through th ere woul d prob ably be s om e role
playing in whi ch th e most enthu si asti c oppon e nts of the c ity
c oun cil s action would b e aske d to take th e coun cil s p art an d
m ayb e e v e n a liturgical or h omi l eti c al d e sign period in which
th e subgroups woul d c ooper at e in prep aring me ans of worsh ip
ing and c el e brating Chri sti an c ommu nion whi c h took into ful l
a cc ount th e problem atic situ ation Ther e might even be s om e
mini l ecture s by any facilitators pr e se nt on how to improve
s o ci al the rapeutic or litur gic al s kills demon str ated during th e
c ourse of th e c as e stu dy
B y this time I was so o v erwhelmed by the thoughts O f s uch a
total l e arn ing exp e ri e n ce th at I am afraid I h ad v e ry little
pr e sen ce of mind for asking helpful qu e stion s
I did inquir e wh e th e r ther e w as any c onne c tion b etw e en this
c as e stud y method of e duc ation an d the wh ol e pra c tice of fi eld
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73
work as we h ad known it when I wa s i n se minary to w hi c h my
pati e nt hos t replie d th at fi e ld work h ad long ago b ee n abolish e d
as a s e cond -rate riv al o f this appro ach within th e s e min ary
its elf I t was d ecided he s aid th at the o n-th e -j ob experience s
often poorly su pervis e d l a cked not onl y the con c e ntrat e d int e n
s it y of the case studi e s but the important setting of c ol l e gi ality
as well within which stud ents woul d b e stimul ated an d in
structed by the display of their friend s im agin ations an d e xpe r
tis e Whe re as a stud ent i n a fi e l d wo rk situ ation might procee d
through th re e o r four m aj or experien ces a ye ar with only
sporadic o r u ne v en tre atm ent in a se min ar s e tting h e might
re as on ably h av e as m any as s ixty or s e venty such ex perien c e s
ann ua l ly in th e cas e stu die s program
Bri e fs of the d ail y stu di e s I l e arn e d we re c i rc ul at e d am on g
th e stu dents s e v e ra l d a y s in ad v an c e of th e pu b l i c h e arin gs so
th at th er e w as oppo rtu nit y for r e s e ar c h and r eflec tion b efor e
a c tu a ll y b ec oming invo lve d in the s e s sions th e m s elve s T h e s ub
j e ct s for th e studi e s range d wid ely G e n e ra lly th ey h ad to do
with p ari sh r e spon s e to s u c h situ ation s a s th e al arming con
sumption of s exu al pornography by th e y o ung ; the d e ath of a
n onbeliever ; the di v orce of a promine nt p ari sh couple ; the d e
fe at o f a p articul arly worthy c an did ate for politi c al o ffice ; th e
bombing of a sm a ll Afri c an city by UN c ontainm e nt troop s ; a
d e v astating fl ood th at h ad l e ft tho us an d s o f t e n e m e nt famili e s
hom ele s s ; pu bli c in differe n c e to e du c ation a l m e thod ; an d s ub
l imin al p att e rns o f pr ej u di c e on gov e rnment t elev is ion c h an
nel s
I t was p rim aril y for the c as e studie s w hich we r e c on s tantly
being ch ange d an d r e n e we d th at most of th e minis te rs and
l a y m e n return e d to s e min ary on c e th ey h ad left A m onth s
worth of th e s e s e ss ion s d ecl ared b y m entor and th ey go b a c k to
th e ir p aris he s l ik e n ew person s "
M an y of th e c as e stu die s I le arne d w e r e brought to th e
s e m in ary by r e turning stud e nt s Some repr e s e nt e d a c tu a l in c i
d e nts wh i c h th ey h ad had to face in the lin e of d ut y Oth e rs were
th e fruit o f i m agin ation and sp ec ul ation which r e s u l t e d when
th e stu d e nts r efle ct e d on the r e l ationship b e twe en v ariou s life
situ ation s an d ce rtain the olo gi c al t e a c hings or po sitions All in
a l l it m e ant th at th e r e was littl e p l ac e in this m od e rn semin ar y
for pur e ly ab stra c t thought or b elief The r el i gion in c ul c at e d
ther e was a c o m m and o r e ligion B e li ef was c onstantl y b e ing
c hall e nged by r e al s itu ation s
I c ould n ot bu t c on ce d e to my h os t that it w as th e m o s t
in c omp arabl e syst e m I h ad e v er e n c ounter e d
B ut did it m e an I a s ked th at s tu d e nts n ev e r ent e r e d upon
?
c hur c h vo cations during their se min ary training And if it did
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74
,
settled in n ew j obs S uddenly even though it was e arly morn
ing I was tired It would b e a long d ay
—
B ut some d ay m a yb e
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76
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THE C HA P LA I N CY I N T HE Y EAR 2 0 0 0
Rich ard G Hutche son J r Ph d
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The s afest forec a st o n e c a n m a ke reg a rding the ch apl aincy in
the ye ar 2 0 00 AD is th at it will have changed les s th a n we
expe ct A Chaplain V an Winkle vintage 1 9 5 2 s ud denly aw a ken
ing in 1 9 7 6 would re quire only a few d ays t o a dj u st Alth ough
n
f
f
h e would be am a z ed at some o f the things going o o po st a nd
at som e aspects of the Army he would find th e contin uity
within the chaplaincy its elf re ass uring He coul d fit c omfort ably
into m o st el ements of m ost ch ape l programs E ven the i s sue s
being di s cu ss ed at we ekly chaplain me etings woul d b e rem ark
ably similar t o thos e o f the e arly fiftie s when he fell a sleep ; he
could enter s ome of th e arguments with h ard ly a droppe d an al
ogy We can confidently predict th at to d ay s ch aplain wo ul d be
e qu ally at hom e in the ch aplaincy 2 4 ye ars in the future This i s
not to deny the ubiquity of ch ange in our society The nece ss ity
of coping with c on stant and rapid change in the world o f the l ate
2 0 t h c e ntury i s t o o well kn own to be di spute d Yet armie s and
ch aplaincie s do rem ain rel ativ ely stable in such a changing
environ ment I n b as ic ways ch apl ain ministry i s very much like
it was a qu arter century ago and the s ame i s likely to b e tru e a
qu arter century in the future
A second b ase line t o be l a id out as we prep are fo r a look at the
chaplain c y in the ye ar 2 00 0 i s a recognition th at the most sig
nifi c ant single source o f ch ange— the po ssibility of war— cannot
be predicted Armie s exist to b e prep are d to wage w ar if ne c e s
s ary an d when th at ne ce s sity ari se s all b ets are O ff A s World
War I I established the m aj or p arameter s fo r tod ay s armed
—
forc e s s o anoth er m aj or worl dwid e c o nfl ic t a Worl d War
—
I I I would bring forth a radically new situ a tion for the worl d
and the n ation as well as the a rme d force s A locali z e d war in
th e Ne ar E a st o r e lsewhere woul d introduce signifi cant n ew
v ari ab le s as did the Kore an and Vietn ame s e wars in the l ast
qu arter century Any ration al fu t u ro l o gi z ing at this time mu st
be b ase d on an as s umption th at there will not b e a nother glob al
war an d on a recognition th at future localiz ed wars would
signifi cantly alter m atters
Th e s e two c ave ats as id e wh at change s c a n we expe ct th e next
?
qu arter century to bring t o the milit ary ch apl ain cy A l ook at
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D r H tc h on R r Ad mir l CHC USN
i w id e l y k now
p k r d w rit r R c ntl y
r i g a con lt t to t h Offi c of t h Chi f o f Ch pl i D p rt m t o f t h Army h co d ct d
r ch nd co mpil d a r p o t R p on i Ch p l incy for t h L t Se ti H l t t
l
b le r
b ing r c i d w it h pp
ch
c ( Atl t J o h n Kno Pr 1 9 7
d h Ch p l
b oo k Th Ch
d m lit ry r l i gio
ti o H h w n a r p t t i o
co mm iti
b ri dg b u ild r b e t w n t h ci i l i n
u
.
se
v n
e se a
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ur
e
,
e
,
as
o
a
ea
an
su
as
v a ua
n
es
e
a
e
es a n
e
t
u a
e
,
,
a
n as a
,
e
e
e
r —
“
a
e
es
s ve
an a ,
ai n y
e-
n as a s
s
e
a ns,
a
x
ee
e
e
a
18
a
an
i
e
e
e
a
e
e
e
,
ve n
a e
e
e ss,
an
e
en
a
v
ea
e ve
us
es
”
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e
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e
n u
is
a
un
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e
a es
re ci a
es
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77
’
the future mu st st a rt with the pre sent We begin by id entifying
tho se a re a s in which change is n ow t aking pl ace Obviou sly
when o u r concern is the future o f the ch apl a incy some o f the
ch a nge s in th e s o c i e t y at l arge are more s a lient th an oth e rs
Since th e ch apl ain p articip ate s in two m aj or soci a l in stitutio n
s
the c hu rc h a n d the a rm y we c a n n arrow the field to tho s e
ch a nge s h a ving the gre ate st effect o n the s e t w o in stitution s We
m a y th en a s k s om e que stions th a t will e n able u s to take a
r a tion al look a t wh at i s likely t o happen in the future First
?
di
r
e
c
t
i
o
n
what i s th e
O f th e ch ange Toward wh at go al doe s it
?
seem t o b e t aking u s Second h o w rap i d ly is the ch ange taking
?
pl a ce Third wh at i s the o u t l o o k reg a rding continued dire ction
?
an d spe e d
Wh at fa ctors se e m likely t o affect the future con
?
i
n
t
u at io n of the trend
An d fin ally wh at p roj e c ti o n can we
m ake abo ut the ch a plaincy in the ye a r 2 00 0 AD b as ed on e ac h
?
tren d U sing th es e procedure s a framework within which any
group o f ch a plain s c a n eng age in its own futurology exerci s e ( or
check and take i s s u e with the con clu sion s of this o ne ) woul d look
som ething like th at sh own below The trend s li sted in th e left
“
”
h a nd colum n und er Are a s of Ch ange
are the one s t o b e
examined in this article Such lists of cou rse might v a ry
It is app arent th a t some current ch ange s in the s o c iety at
l a rge are re fl ecte d s ignifi c a ntly in both the church and the
army The changing role of women for in st an ce h as m aj or
implication s fo r both in stitution s and mu st be examin e d in all
three c ategorie s
While al l the are as o f change listed above will b e looked at in
the following dis cu ssion som e will receive m ore attention th an
others T w o identifi ed above a s the tren d toward s oci al con se r
”
”
“
v at is m
an d th e d e m yt h o l o gi z m g o f institution s
will b e
examine d in som e detail a s implic ati ons for th e military th e
churche s and the ch apl a in cy are trace d in e ach cas e
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Trend Tow a rd S oci al Con serv a tism
I n th e ev alu ative stu dy O f Army Ch apl ain cy program s con
ducte d by th e author in l ate 1 9 7 4 and 1 9 7 5 as s umptions r e gard
ing the future were li ste d as the b ackground again st which
a s se s sm ents of spe cifi c program s we re m ade Th e first of the
listed a s sumption s a bout Am erican s ociety was :
As the traum a o f V ietn am an d the sh o c k of th e
Watergate e ra contin ue to re ce d e from the forefront of
Am eric an c on s ciou sne s s the s ociety will be se e king
‘
norm al cy Pre s ent tren d s ind icate th at this que st will
—
take the s a me direction it h as historic ally a mo v e
ment in the direction of so ci al c on servati sm
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E vents in the intervening period h ave not only confirmed but
h ave strengthen ed the pe rception o f a con servative trend in the
n ation Politic a lly the turn t a ken by the 1 9 7 6 prim ary election
c amp aigns h a s been wi dely interpreted a s re fl ecting a re sur
gent con s erv ati sm J u rid ic a l l y the W a rren Supreme Court h a s
been replaced by th e B urger Court The quie s cent career
oriente d stud ent gen er ation of the l ate seventie s i s strikingly
contr a sted with the a ctivist stud ents o f the late sixtie s
M any comm ent ators a re a gree d th a t the cyclic al swing in the
direction of person al libertari anism with emph asis on the
rights O f individu al s re action ag ain st tradition al s oci al v alu e s
e spo u s a l o f v alue -syste m s e mph a sizing s elf-grat ifi c at io n and
optimism reg a rding hum an n ature prob ably re ached its apoge e
at about th e e n d of th e sixtie s Th e pe ndulum i s no w s e en to b e
swin ging in the other dire ction tow ard a more soci e tally
oriente d definition of lib ertie s with e mph asis on the rights of
l arger groups over against individu al s re cov e ry o f c ertain tra
d it io n al v alu e s and a le s s optimistic view o f hum an n atu re
Public pornogr a phy h a s prob ably re ache d its outer limits an d
beginnings o f a m ovem ent in the other dire ction can b e dis
cerne d Sexu al licens e and experi ment ation with altern atives to
m o n o g o m o u s m arri age an d nucl e ar familie s are beginn ing to
d eclin e Th e s e trend s will prob ably accel erate as the re ality of
the con serv ative tid e i s in cre asingly recogni ze d and affirmed
The chapl ain cy of 2 0 00 AD will prob ably re fl ect a con s erv ativ e
r a ther th an a lib ertari an an d in dividu ally oriente d so ci al cli
m ate
A s re fl e cted in the armed force s this so c i al climate i s likely t o
take the form o f les s ening attention to the rights c omforts and
r
i
f
a
t
fi
i
n
o
of
the
in
dividu
al
soldier
an
d
a
d
eemph
asis
c
a
t
o
s
g
”
“
hum an go al s type s of program s I ns te ad the e mph as is W i ll b e
n
the well b eing of th e l arger group on dis cipline and a re c o v
o
ery o f tradition al military valu e s The as sumption o f th e au
thor s 1 9 7 5 stu dy se em s in cre asingly confirm e d :
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Thi s a rmy will b e m arke d by profes sion alis m wi th far
le s s emph a s is th an i n the p ast on cra sh program s to
d e al with m as sive so ci al prob lem s such a s d ru g abu se
race ten sion s an d di ssid ents A s the climate o f pro fe s
s io n al is m b ecome s m ore p e rv as i ve
Army authoriti e s
will pe rc eive it as l es s and le ss nece s s ary to d evote
‘
attention to pe opl e problem s
,
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’
.
Th e churche s as l e ading opinion m aker s were am ong the
e arly so ci al institution s t o re fl ect the c on serv ative trend Whil e
religiou s cons erv atis m an d s ocial cons ervatis m are by no me ans
id entic a l they expre s s simil ar dyn amic s Critic s may no t agre e
o n re ason s as to Why t h e C o n s e rv a t i v e Chu rc h e s a re G ro wi ng
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80
but the book s title express e s an indi sputable fact A s the 1 97 5
chapl aincy study predicted :
The liberal m ainline s churche s will continue t o d ecline
in members while the cons erv a tive evangelical
churche s will continue t o grow Within the liberal
churche s them selve s the trend will b e away from the
hum a nistic extrem e s o f the sixtie s and e arly seventie s
tow ard a recovery of tran scendence ( the recent mu c h
‘
publici z e d H artford A ffi rm at io ns p oint the direction
of the future ) coupled with continu ed soci al con cern
but without the s o c i al radicalism of the sixties The
liberal e stablishm ent as the voice of Am eric an r e ligi on
is not d e ad but c on s ervative voic e s wi l l c ontinue to
grow in stren gth and in fl u e n c e in tho se c hurch stru e
tur e s d e aling with th e military
’
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De s pite th e tr e n d toward s oci al cons er v atism it s ee m s c l e ar
th at ce rtain s oci al gains whi c h h ave bee n asso c i at e d with the
person al lib e rtari an and hum an rights orientation o f the p ast
qu arter -c entury will not b e reverse d Most p rominent am ong
th e se are th e new statu s of minoritie s and wom en With regard
to minoritie s the conceptu al b attle i s won The entitlem e nt o f
bla c ks to full e qu ality i s firmly e stablished Ahe ad lie s a p e riod
of con s olid ation of gain s m arked by in c r e asingly full accept
“
”
an c e and norm aliz ation of minority e quality
T he future for wom en in s oci e t y i s le s s a s e ttl e d is s u e T he
ex tr e m e s of the feminist m ovem e nt h ave alr e ady rece ded The
ultim ate ad option of the E qu al Rights Amendment ( significance
of which h as b e e n largely symboli c ) see m s incre asingly in d oubt
T h e tradition al rol e of wom en as home m akers i s not lik e ly to b e
seriou sl y und ermined H ow e v e r th e op e ning up of alt e rn ativ e
rol e s and full e qu ality with men for tho se wom e n wh o c h oos e
su c h alt e rnative roles is n ot likely to b e r e v e r sed Thi s fa c t h as
signific ant imp l i c ati on s for the military and the ch apl aincy
whi c h we will note a littl e later
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D e mytholo g i z ing o f I nstitution s
On e wo ul d exp e ct a sw i ng of the pendulu m toward s oci al
c o ns e rv at iv is m to bring with it a h e ight e ned re spect for tradi
t io nal s oci al in stitution s — governm ent c hur c h bu sine s s th e
education al e stablishment union and th e arm e d for ce s Ulti
m ate l y this m ay turn out to b e the c as e an d th e c on s er v ati ve
trend m ay in p art re fl e ct a n u ncons ciou s lon ging for a b asis on
w hi c h c onfi d e n ce in su c h in stitution s c an b e r e stored F or th e
i mm edi ate future however such in stituti on s will continue to be
v iewe d with few illu sions and with c on sid e rable sk e ptici s m
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81
From the perspective o f milit ary chapl ain s the effect o n the
—
t w o m aj or in stitutions they repres ent the church and the
armed forces — is O f overwhelming importance There i s some
evid ence th at both enj oy a n i mproving pu blic image Of ine s
tim ab le long-ra nge signifi c ance however is one aspe ct of in
s t it u t io n al demythologi zing which is bringing a bout a m aj or
change in the b as ic w ay military s ervice i s defined and under
stoo d by the Am eric an pe ople
Historically milit ary service h as not been regarded by
”
“
Am erican s as a j ob com p arable to any other kind of vo ca
t io n al activity The d omin ant im age out o f the p ast was th at of
the citi z en -soldier
volunteering o r be ing involu ntarily
m obili z e d for n ation al e mergencie s The milit ary environment
“
embraced the whole o f life and the Army was a total ins t it u
”
tion Sin ce military serv i ce w as civic oblig a tion p ay was low
The obligation of a gr ateful n ation to t ake care of its d efen ders
”
“
however l ed to a l a rg e num ber o f ben efits The sm all nucleu s
o f profe s sion al s
m aintain ed betwe en emerge ncie s was com
n
n
e
s
a
t
e
d
for
low
a
a
d the h a z ard ou s n ature of the calling b y
p
p y
a wid e range o f fringe b enefits covering ne arly every nece s sity
—
of life c Omm i s s arie s post exch ange s complete medi c al care
recre a tion al facilitie s generou s retirem ent provision s even
spiritu al nurture from chaplains all of which wer e in keeping
”
“
w ith th e total in stitution concept I n return for the shelter of
this pate rnalisti c u m brella far m ore c omplete th a n th e kind of
”
“
prote ction accompanying any norm al j o b
t h e profes sion al
”
“
soldier was gl a d to forego th e oth er side of the j ob e quation :
th e pe rson al rights of accept a n ce or rej ection a m e as ure of
control ov er work c on dition s an d the right to b argain over
compens ation
The enormou s po st -Wo rld W ar I I exp an s ion o f the siz e of
perm anent standing armed forces brou ght s u cc e s s 1 v e i ncre as e s
in military compens ation to level s appro aching comp arability
with civilian j ob s B ut there was n o b asic change in phil o sophy
since th e syste m was buttre s s ed by a draft b ase d on a theory
”
“
th at a period o f n a tion a l service was owed by all you ng men
Military s ervice rem a ined a spe ci a l vo c a tion al category distinct
from ordin ary j ob s with m embers foregoing pe rson al control in
exchange fo r a total life style and a n u mbrella o f b enefits
The en d of th e dr a ft in re spons e to pu blic cl amor during th e
highly unpopul ar V ietn ame se War coupled with th e on se t of
the a l l -volunteer army brought however a b asic ch a nge in the
ration ale fo r military s ervice The absence of any statutory
obligation a l ong with the ab sence o f any feeling of person al
O bligation to s acrifi ce o r to s erve (whic h ch aracteri z ed th e s e lf
f
n
i
ethi
c
the
sixtie
s
r
a
ifi
n
a
d the e a rly seventie s ) ha s left
t
o
c
a
t
o
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82
,
Other
T rend s
Th e
improved statu s of minoritie s and wo men was noted
above T h e armed force s and the churches h ave b een ins t it u
tion s p articul arly affe c te d by the se gain s R aci al quotas
whether affirm ative o r negative will not b e a factor in the
military of the future Open re c ruiting and fo r the most p art
ge nuine e qu al opportunity w ill lead to continu ed high level s of
minority p articip ation and t o incre asing numbers of bl acks at
higher rank levels A continued m ovement toward full e qua lity
fo r w o men w h o c hoo se non -tradition al ro l e s m ay al so b e ex
p e ct e d I n th e arme d fo r c e s this will prob ably le ad t o rem o v al
b efo re th e end of the c entury of the legal b ars which n o w
prevent wom en from s erving in comb at r o le s B y 2 00 0 AD
wom en are likely t o b e fully integrate d in every occu p ation al
and com bat speci ality
Nowhere h as th e feminist movement h ad a gre ater i mp act
th an in th e churche s I t i s entirely po s sible given the traditi o n
ally high er l evel o f p articip ation in religiou s a c tivitie s by
w o m en th an by men together with the rapidly exp and i ng
church l ead ership o pp ortunitie s for w o men th at fem ale l e ad er
ship m ay be c om e d o min ant in som e d eno min ation s by 20 0 0 AD
T h e m ost striking evid en ce o f things t o c ome i s t o be s een i n
semin ary enr o llment with some d enom i n ation al s e min arie s re
porting th at w o m en c o mpris e u p t o one third of their entering
cl as s e s an d up to one h alf in some interd en omin ati o n al
se min ari es T h e expe c te d number of wom an gradu ate s prob ably
c ann ot be ab sorbed by c ivili an c hur c he s and with in c re asingly
open m i lit ary offi c er procurement poli c ie s the numb er o f
w o m en entering the c hapl ain cy i s likely to in c re a s e rapidly
”
“
T h e d e c lin e o f the mainline liberal churche s and the in
cre asing con s ervatism of Ameri c an rel i gi o u s life h ave b een
m entioned e arlier An o ther sign ifi c ant tre nd i s the proliferati o n
o f new se c ts and c ults on the religiou s scene N ew Christian or
qu a si Chris tian sects tend t o be ultra c on s erv ative S om e c ults
”
“
form erly regarded as fringe group s are fo llowing th e cl as s i c
p attern of in stitution ali z ati o n and move ment toward the re l igi
ou s m ain stre am P arti c ul arly stri ki ng are the n o n Jud eo
Christi an religions c urrently taking this p ath in c luding th e
B la c k M u slim m ovement wh i c h i s n o w re aching out for br o ader
re co gn i ti o n and a cc eptan c e B u dd hist move ments in Hawaii
and the we s t c o ast are al s o m o ving toward re c ogniti o n as p art o f
the ma i nstre am ( w i tne s s the re c ent i n c lu s i o n o f B u ddhists in
Cal i forn i a state legis lature praye r form alit i e s in tho s e regi o ns
Th e trend t o ward con serv atism an d the pr o liferati o n o f c ults
w i ll n o t signifi c antly affe c t c ivil religi o n c ere m onie s whi c h are
gene rally supp o rte d by c on serv at i ve gr o ups Co ns ervative s are
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84
le s s inclined toward a hom ogeniz ed e c u menic al religion h o w
ever and the long range re sult o f c on serv ative as c end ency
coupled with the growth o f cults and se c ts is likely to b e gre ater
pluralism in religiou s practice
”
“
,
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.
E merging P icture
of
the Chaplaincy
emerging pi c ture of the military c h aplain cy o f 2 000 A D
which m ay b e summ ari z ed on the b as is of proj e c tions from the
foregoing trend s i s s omething like the following T h e comp o si
ti o n o f the chaplain c y will b e m o re pluralistic with les s d omin a
ti o n by th e lib eral e stablis hment and gre ater repre sentation
from the e vangelical ch u rche s in c luding newer sects I t will n o
longer b e s o lely J ud eo -Christian A few ch apl ains fr o m form erly
”
“
fringe religion s s u c h as B u ddhist s ects an d the B lack M u s
lim s will pr o b ab ly b e in c lud ed T here wi ll b e far more fem al e
chapl ain s — pr o b ably up t o one -third in the lower grade s — b y the
end o f the c entury
T h e ministry too will b e m ore pluralistic with fewer Army
wide program s b ase d o n a lib eral c ons en s u s T here will h ave
b een s ome movement away from ministrie s aime d at hum an
d evelopment and p o tenti al in the dire c tion o f more traditi o n al
”
“
and spiritu al ministrie s but a th o rough -go ing an d s elf
c o n sci o us plurali sm will all o w for o pti o n al hum an growt h
c entered ministries
T h e ministeri al environm ent will b e a military co m mu nity
wi th m o re min ority person s in the upper ranks and wi th far
m o re w o m an s oldiers integrated into comb at as well as n on
c omb atant spe c i altie s U ni o ni z ation with a limite d kind of co l
l e c t iv e b argaining repl acing the p atern al i s m of e arlier p at
terns is likely to m ake fo r a military s ervice wh i c h i s far le s s a
”
“
t o tal in stituti o n th an at pre sent T h i s trend will h ave b een
b al anced t o s o m e extent however by str o nger dem an d s from
the military e stab lishm ent for o n the j o b di s c ipline an d pro fe s
s io n alis m S uch a new c ontext wi ll offer l
t century chapl a in s
enlarge d opportunitie s for re c o nciling an d bridge -building
ministrie s along with their tradition al dutie s
“
Yet
the m ore things ch ange th e m ore t hey rem ain the
”
s am e When all the s e tren d s are proj e c ted into th e future the
fa c t rem ains th at b asi c ally the chaplain s ministry w 1 11 b e simi
l ar to th at of the pre sent C ontinuity i s still th e m o st signifi cant
fa c t o r A 1 9 7 6 Chap lain V an Winkle awakening in the ye ar 2 00 0
AD would adj u st quite re adily
Th e
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85
N O N V IO L E N T S O UR C E S O F THE AM E RI C AN RE
V O LUT I O N AN D THE IR I M P LI CAT I O N S FO R T O
M ORRO W
M artin L S mith
.
R eflecting on o u r history :
B ritain h as j u st w o n th e most costly w ar in record ed history
again st France A w a r d ebt in ex c e s s of L 1 4 0 million exists
L ord G eorge G renville the new Prime M inister is faced with
the problem o f p aying off the war debt In 1 7 6 3 the average
E nglishmen p aid 2 6 shillings a ye ar in tax T o burden E ng
lis h m e n with an ad dition al t ax wo ul d b e politic ally unwis e
T axe s in the North American colonie s approxim ate from 5
pen ce to 1 shilling pe r ye ar Of the war d ebt at le ast L 3 O million
h as b een spent in the colonie s I n addition at the requ est of the
colonists
B ritish troop s are being m aintained at a co st o f
L 2 20 00 0 a ye ar in the col onie s for their protection from th e
n ative Am ericans
I n an effort to help b al ance the B ritish bu dget in rel ation to
the costs in c urre d through m aintainin g th e North Ameri can
colonie s a se ri e s of Acts h ave b ee n is sued in 1 7 6 4 6 5 T he s e
includ e : the S ugar Act which lowers the t ax o n sugar fr o m 6
pen ce t o 3 pen ce pe r pou nd but re quire s p ayment by the co l
o nis t s in gold b r silver coin age ; the Qu artering Act whi c h re
quire s colonists t o h ou se B riti sh tr o op s whe n inade qu ate sp ace
xist in the b arracks ; and the S tamp Act intend ed to rais e
revenu e by r equiring cert ain docum ents t o be ar offici al stamps
T o the B riti sh P arli am ent the se me as ure s see m quite re as on
able I n the origin al ch arters grante d to the colonists P arlim e nt
h ad the right to t ax T h e B ritish governm ent h as spent large
sum s d efending th e c olonie s from the Fren ch and th e n ative
Ameri c an s B ut in th e colonies the y c au se a m aj or controversy
T h e c olonists pe rceive the s e A cts as intru sion upon the ir free
d om Fo r th e p ast 1 5 0 ye ars the c o lonists h ad no t b een subj ected
t o dire c t British t axation T h e B riti sh m on archy pre occupied
with other problem s h ad never d eveloped a tight administration
of the c olonies During this pe rio d of benign neglect the c ol
o nis t s h ad d evel ope d their o w n altern ative go vernments T he se
governm ents we re bro ad ly b as e d rep re s entative forum s T h es e
forum s we re s o e ffe ctiv e th at Joh n Ad am s wrote
th at th e
revolution was c om plete in th e mind s o f th e pe ople an d the
U nion of th e c olonie s b efore the war com m en ce d in th e skir
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M ti Smit h m mb o f t h Am i c n F i nd s S vic C o mm it t ( Qu k ) i p c d u c tio n
co sul t nt t univ s it y nd h igh s ch ool f c u lt i s d s t ud nt b o d i s A m mb o f t h P c E d u c t ion
m h p l y s s ig ifi c t ol n p d mg nd dist ibu ting p int d nd ud io visu l
nd Ac t i o n P o g
m t i l s d in condu ct ing confl ict s ol u tio n cli nic s d w o k s h o ps
ar
n
n
a
,
r
a er a
86
an
ra
er
e
e
,
e
a
er
a
er
o
a
a
r e
a
a
a
n
re
an
e
r
er
an
e i
e
e
ro
e
uc
an
a
ee
s a
.
a
r
r
.
e
er
,
e
a
ea e
e
er
r
ea e e
s a
a
a
a
-
a
m is h e s of Con cord and L exington
the 1 9 th of April 1 7 7 5 T h e
colonists an d the British go vernm ent h ad a cl as sic con flict : the
B ritish felt th at they h ad a legal right t o t ax while the col onists
felt that B ritain was unfairly t axing without granting re pre
s e nt at io n
.
on
.
,
.
I n s uch a con flict there se em s t o be four cho ices : t o
w i th a t h r ea t off o rc e ; t o a c c ep t t h e w i l l of t h e a d v e rs a ry ;
an a c c o
m m o d a ti o n ;
t o u nd e rm i ne t h e
a d v e rs a ry
re s p
to
o nd
rea c h
t h ro ug h t h e t a c
f n o nvi o l e n t s t rugg l e Th e first option has the d ange rth at
the thre at of force might actu ally ne ed to be applie d T hus
n ations h ave repe ate dly gon e to war W ar is costly in b oth
hum an and m ateri al term s T h e sec on d option i mplies pos s ib ly
accepting tyrann y Y o u are unwilling to take a stand agains t
oppre ssion T hi s third method re quire s working o ut mu tu ally
acceptable terms T his c an be very difficult Com munication and
a s ens e of tru st in the adver s ary are usu ally es s ential S even
metho ds o f accomm o dation h ave b een found to be effective in
c o n flict re s o lution : cooperation compromise ch anging go al s o r
v alue s stal em ate o r truc e withd rawal legal o r legisl ative set
t l e m e nt an d arbitration or award T h e fourth method prob ab ly
the le as t u nderstood involves wiel ding power through a no nv io
lent c ampaign Nonvio lent c ampaigns in cl u de famili ar te ch
niq u es like : stri kes boycotts slow d own s fasting picketing
non c oo peration and s it ins
I n p articul ar the S t amp Act c au sed an uproar T h e action s
t aken by th e colonists were unpreced ente d I n retros pect it
seem s th at th e col onists h ad fo ur options :
1 t o thre aten armed re sistance in oppo sition t o the tax ;
2 to acc ept the new t ax and p ay th eir sh are of the w ar
debt ;
3 to acc ept the tax but protes t s in ce P arli am ent sh oul d
not rais e revenue in the colonie s ;
4 t o refu se the tax as unj u stifi ed
A s you are well aware th e colonists d eci ded to refu se p ay
m ent of th e tax R efu sing p ayment w as a radical acti o n P eople
often o bj ect t o governmental tax ati o n but seld o m d o more th an
c o mplain I t mu st be remem bered th at the ide a of In depend en ce
was j u st b eginning t o b e voiced by a sm all group of extremi sts
Although c oloni al re sisten ce o t the S tamp Act was m arred by
num erou s examples of mob action it was s ignifi c antly a n o nv io
lent campaign o f economic re sistance and refu s al to u se stam ps
Not a s ingle de ath i s recorded through their viol ent prote st
I n a p amphl et written by D aniel Dul any in O c tober of 1 7 6 5 on
“
re sistan ce to the S tamp Act he s aid I nste ad of m o ping an d
whining to excite co mp ass ion in such a situ ation we ought with
spirit and vigor and al acrity to bid defi an ce t o tyranny by expo s
ti c s
o
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87
ing its impotence by m aking it as c o nte mptible as it woul d b e
” 1
T h e colonists acted in such a s way a s t o u nder
dete st able
mine Lord G re nv il l e s authority
Ho w d o es a group und erm ine authority by no nviolent a c tion ?
One form o f n on violent action is noncooper ation U nder the
S tamp A ct stamps were re quired on all legal d ocum ents W hen
the col onists refu se d t o u se the stamps o n e qu e stion became
whether the c o urts should rem ain open G eorge W ashington
dis played a so phisticated u nderstan ding of n onviol ent strategy
by re asoning : You c l os e the c ou rts b e c au se if you c l o s e t h e
c o urts th e c ourts c ann o t b e u se d in an effort t o colle c t the
money whi c h the c o l onists are refu sing T hu s the E nglish mer
chants who want their money pre s sure P arliament for repe al
of th e tax
T hrough a s erie s o f nonviolent campaigns prim arily no nim
r
i
n
o
t
a
t
an d non c om pli an ce th e col o nist s und ermined the
o
p
m o st powerfu l governm ent in E ur o pe T h e S tamp Act was re
pe aled by th e E nglis h P arlim e nt L ord G re nv il l e s government
failed an d P arli am ent re as se s e d its c ol o nial poli c y
L o st t o th e myth o logy o f the sh ot th at was h e ard ar o und the
world is a v as t di sregard ed history of the u se o f nonviolent
form s of stru ggle by the Am erican c ol o nists agains t E ngli s h
co ntrol s I n the peri o d betwe en 1 7 6 5 an d 1 7 7 5 the colonis ts
c on du c ted three sep arate c am paigns which dis playe d s oph ist i
c at e d u
nderstanding of the te c hnique s o f n onviol ent stru ggle
T he s e c ampaign s were prim arily focu se d on B ritish t axa t i o n
poli c ies whi c h were c on s id ere d u nj u st by t h e c ol o nists I t was
thr o ugh th es e program s th at self-governm ent in the Co l o nie s
m atured an d th e i de a o f I ndepend en c e b ec ame a re ality
I raised th e i s s ue o f nonviolent struggle in the colonial era n o t
to refute wh at you l earned in high s c h oo l but rather t o c h al
lenge your thinking o n altern at i ve s t o arm ed stru ggle His t o ri
c ally war h as playe d an i mp o rt ant fu n c tion in inte rn ati o n al
“
rel ations As G en eral K arl von Clau sewit z s o aptly stated : W ar
”
is p o liti c s by other m e ans T o d ay we mu st s e e k war by o ther
m e ans T h e advent o f nu c l e ar we ap ons which en d ange r not only
an advers ary but the entire hum an speci e s h as m ad e inte rn a
t io n al w ar in cre asingly dys fun c tio n al I r o ni c ally the t e c h n o l og
i cal impr o vements ad infi nit u m in d es tr u ctive c ap ability h ave
d on e littl e to improve s ecurity
T o an o utsid er it se em s apparent th at th e military e sta b
l is h m e nt ne ed s to co n s id er altern ative meth o d s for res o lving
c o n flict Awarene s s o f th e ne e d for re se ar c h o n alternatives t o
arm ed c o n fli c t is gr o wing I n a report Ri c h ard Falk a m em b er o f
the U nited St ate s te am o f the W orl d Ord er M od el s P roj ect a
tran sn ation al group o f s c hol ars proj e c ting future w o rl d n e ed s
s u cc in c tly stated :
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88
long as power is m aintained by viol en ce it will b e
challenged by violen ce I n this sense the displacem ent
of c ollective violence in hum an affairs involve s a c o m
preh ens ive alth ough gradu al an d n o t ne ce s s arily t o
tal sub stitution of m odes of medi atio n compromise
and persu as ion a s well as a growing appreci ation of
the gre ater utility o f n onviolent techniques o f control
2
and trans formation
Nowh ere d oe s a b lu eprint pre s ently exist fo r an effective a l
t e rn at iv e to the fu nction o f warfare an d the pre sent military
e stablishm ent An in stitute should be e stablished with
ade quate fund s and personnel t o re se arch alternative method s
fo r res olving con flict without the u se of arme d force T h e mili
tary sh ould b e at th e forefront in support o f such res e arch
An ex ample of an altern ative t o arme d struggle is nonviol ent
struggle R esistance to the S tamp Act in 1 7 6 5 was a nonviolent
struggle Nonviol ent struggle is quite distin ct from b eing p as
sive an d praying th at evil will dis appe ar I t i s b as ed upon the
simple ide a th at the exercis e o f power d epend s on the con s ent of
3
the ruled N 0 governm ent whether d emocratic or totalitari an
can effe ctively operate without the support o f the pe ople P eople
h ave the capability t o with draw th eir cons ent an d thu s u nd er
mine authority T hrough n oncooperation pe ople can m ake a
government in effective Nonviolent struggl e i s not e asy I t re
quires dis cipline and the c ap a city to b e ar h ard ship From the
limited historic al re se arch which h as been done we know th at
n o nviolent camp aign s h ave bee n effectively waged again st dic
t at o rs and tyrants R ecord s show the P l eb ei ans in 4 94 B C con
ducte d a su c c e ssful nonviol ent c amp aign
Nonviolent struggle i s a strategy whi c h o ffers promis e of
tactical s u cc e s s in und ermining an advers ary I ts mod e of oper
ation is such th at viol en ce t o individu al s an d property are lim
it e d Yet j u st anoth er strategy or tactic for w aging war i s n ot
en o ugh S eriou s re se arch on con flict re s o lution i s nee d ed : a
cle ar m ore coge nt u nder st anding about wh at con flict is ; o f how
conflicts evolve an d e s cal ate into viol ence ; an d of wh at method s
exi st for resolving c on fli c t without re sorting t o violence A l
though n o t entirely an alog o u s the method s by which individu
als h andle person al confli c t might help bro ad en our und erstand
ing of the w ay in which intern ation al confli c t i s m an age d
I n my o w n work with th e S chool s P rogram of the New York
offi c e of the Am erican Frien d s S ervice Co mmitte e I h ave fo und
th at p eople often h ave di storted perception s of conflict T hey
e qu ate confli c t with violence :
So
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CON FL I CT
A GG R E S S I ON
V I OL E N CE
D E S T R U CT I O N
89
Con flict
is perceived as wh at appe ars nightly o n the T V P eople
d o not re aliz e th at conflict can b e either s oci ally u seful ( func
t i o n a l ) o r h armful ( dysfunction al )
T hrough system atic study conflict might be d e m y s t ify e d
E ducation al program s can deline ate method s th at ai d the fu nc
t io n a l re solution o f con flict We nee d to :
4
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.
accept con flict as a n atural and norm al a spect of life ;
—
re aliz e th at con flict can b e avoid ed but at the risk of
i gn ori ng und erlying ten sion s and fru stration s ;
—u nd erstand th at
while viol ence may ha ve served
certain
function s
th roughout
history
m od ern
we aponry and glob al interdepend ence m ake re s orting
to violence in cre as ingly dysfunction al ;
— und erstand th at violen ce c an l e ad t o s oci al change
but th at this doe s n o t m ake it the be st way o r the only
—
,
,
,
,
w ay ;
recogni z e th at o u r b asic soci al institution s whil e far
from pe rfe ct offer countle ss ways o f expres sing an d
5
res olving c o nflic t s
—
,
.
E ducation
m ay provid e a vehicle for individu al s to re aliz e
th at con flict i s rel ated to but not s ynonymou s with violence an d
aggres sion ; in fact mo st hu m an conflicts are re solve d with o ut
viol en ce
RE FE R E N C E S
,
,
.
“
D aniel Dulany
Con sid eration s u pon the Rights of the
”
B riti sh Colonists t o the P rivil ege s of Briti sh S ubj ects ( New
York 1 7 66 ) p 4 7
2 Richard Falk S tu d y of Fu tu re Wo rl d s ( New York 1 9 7 5 ) pp
1
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,
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,
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1 55 56
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,
,
—
3
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.
S e e G ene S h arp , Th e P o li t i c s
f
o
N o nv i o l en t A c ti o n ( B oston ,
According to a spe c i al K P IX -TV S an Franci sco M ay 1 0— 1 2
1 97 5 report th e average child witne s s e s an estim ate d
TV
d e ath s a ye ar
5 D avid C King P a tt e rn s of Hu m a n C o nfl i c t ( New Y o rk 1 9 7 4 )
p 14
4
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follow i ng i s a sugge sted list of starter books containing
specifi c exercis e s or inform ation rel ate d t o th e development o f a
b ette r understanding o f con flict re s olution
Co nfl i c t a nd C o m m u n i c a t i o n by Joh n B urton ( New York : O x
ford U niversity P re s s 1 96 9 ) d et ail s an expe riment carried
o u t b etwe en t w o w arring state s ( I ndone si a and M al aysi a )
u sing controlled commu nication a s o ne technique fo r dis
pute s ettlement
Th e
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,
,
.
90
AR C HI T E C T S O F THE THIR D C E N T URY
Jo ann N ash
E akin
B ene dicks Fi scher
Clare
impe r ative of the pre sent is to integrate the strug
gle for gre ater hum aniz ation T o b e m ore fully human
is t o sh are life to re sp ond t o the dignity o f ourselve s
and others to b e committe d t o the growt h o f o ne
an oth er t o d evelop an d vit aliz e hum an community
Th e
.
,
,
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,
P re amble ,
De cl aration of I nterd epend ence
.
P AR T O N E
p atriots as s e mbled in P hil ad elphia t w o hu ndred ye ars
ago were e qu ally concerne d with the exige ncie s o f their im
m edi ate political struggle and the vi sion of a free s o ciety t h riv
ing o n o u r l an d scape without the fetters of arbitrary power I n
their m e s s age of n ation al self d etermin ation the tyranny o f the
B riti sh Crown was den ou nced an d a glimps e into this new an d
dem ocratic society was offered T h e Decl aration o f Ind e p e nd
ence contin ue s to provid e a theory of hum an lib eration as re
v o l u t io n a ry in content tod ay as it was i n con se qu en c e in 1 7 7 6
S in ce the time o f Abigail Ad ams women h ave em braced the
promi s e of this his tori c d o cument an d pu z z led o ver its appli c a
b il it y to them T heir struggle fo r s o c i al and politi c al equ al i ty
h as b een infu se d with the found er s z e st fo r free dom inve sting
th eir c au s e with th e s am e belief in the power of solid arity to
move hum an events
D es pite th e ob s curity of much politic al history about wo m en
in th e U nite d S tate s American feminism h as h ad a co ntin uou s
record of o utrage an d courage in the face o f social an d legal
dis ability A v erit ab le choru s of wom en over the m any dec ade s
“
h as ru ng o u t in s upport o f th eir entitlem ent to life lib erty and
”
the pur s uit of h appin e s s R ecently the le ad ership o f el even
wom en s organiz ation s m et in th e historic city of our n ation s
birth P hil ad elphia to review the que stion of wom en s role in
the com m e m oration of th e bicentennial T h e cons en s u s was
re ache d th at s uch a c el ebr ation where h alf the p opul ation re
mained outsid e o f th e s o ci al and politic al life of the n ation as
e qu al p artn er s w as n ot an occasion o f retr o spe ctive s at isfac
Th e
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M s Fis ch
co nsu l t t s n d u c t i o d h um n l tions in t h fi m f Fis c h
E kin Ass oci t s M s E ki n i n inst u ct o t C o nt C o st C ol l g nd n dj u nct p of ss o t S n
F
ci s co Th ol o gi c l S m i n y Sh w fo m ly c mpus m inist t t h U iv s i ty o f C l i fo ni t
MD
B k l y Sh h
f om Y l U niv sit y nd M A n S oci l S ci c M s Fis ch i Ph D
c ndid t i t h S ocio l ogy o f R ligi o n t t h G d u t Th olo gic l Union B k l y Sh i co mpl ti g h
t h s i s n t h t h o l o gy o f w o k nd ins t u c t ing P o lit ic l S c i nc
C o st C oll g Sh i - dit o
t C o nt
o f Wo m i S g L nd S ch f N w I m g Fo t ss P ss 1 9 7 5
Ms
.
E kin
a
a nd
a
a e
ra n
e
er e e
a
e
a e
o
en
92
n
e
n a
a
.
a
s a
e
as an
e
.
.
ar
iv
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.
e
e
t ran
an
e r are
.
r
e
a
:
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r
r
a e
e
a
a
ea r
r
ra
ra
e
a
er
er
e
e
e,
.
.
e a
a
e
r re
,
e a
,
a
e
n
er
ra
re
a
en e
a
i
r
e
er a
a e
a
e
a
an
a
re a
a
a
a
r
or a
n an
a
e
r a
as
e
i
e e
a
.
r
a
er
.
e
.
e
r a
e
er
.
er
o
e
.
s
r
s a
a a
.
.
n
er
s a co e
r
e
e
a
tion U nd erstanding the American R evolution as a symbol of
continuing struggle a revolution which continue s into the fu
ture provid ed the b asis fo r a n ew as s oci ation the W om en s
Co alition for the T hird C entury With the conviction th at
women are re spon sible for cre ating the go al s of n ation al life the
new as soci ation appropri ate d the task of procl aiming the valu e s
”
“
and vision s for a third century T he se ar c hitects o f the future
drafted a D e c l a ra ti o n of In t e rd ep en d en c e which re define s o u r
rel ation ships t o one an other and in corporate s the shortcomings
and impe ratives o f the p ast and pre s ent It will b e offi ci ally
procl aimed on the Fourth o f July this ye ar in W ashington
—
reformul ation of priority from indepen den c e to
T his
interdepe nd ence— pre s ents a view of history where events an d
visions are per c eived as inter c onne c ted re alities T h e pres ent i s
n o more disengage d from the p ast th an the future from o ur
skills and ability t o c o ntrol wh at s t o c ome I nsistent on the
impe rative to ad apt our thinking and pra c tice s in rel ati o n to the
change s of te chnology and communic ation inn o vation the
women weigh the res ilien c e o f tradition al v alu e s in the context
of an e merging glob al s ociety T hey rej ect n ation al s overeignty
and individu ality as il lu sory m od els and impracticable m od e s of
life in the coming d e c ad e s T h e eighte enth c entury attachm ent
to an i d e a of lib erty which fostere d s ep aration from— anoth er
p o litical power so c i al networks— h as be c ome unten able and i s
giving way to an orientation infu se d with the spirit o f con
t inu it y an d comm on ality of experience Altho ugh the m en o f the
American R evolution pledge d their live s and fortu ne s in d e
fe ns e o f s o vereignty their stricture s again st oppre s s ion an d
domin ation give vitality to the c o nte mporary m o vement toward
internation al c om mu nity
Th e p o s sibility of an interd epend ent future so c iety b orn of
the free p artnership of men an d w o men sh aring their mutu al
visions and go als d epen d s up o n an informe d c iti z enship U ntil
wom en s history is retrieved fr o m its sh ad o w -like pl ace only
h alf the story of our c o m mon p ast c an be told It is ironic th at s o
little is known about the previou s dis s ents of women a c tivists in
th e context of the history of n ati o n al pro c l am ation s of right
Twi c e i n the ninete enth c entury w o men drafted De c l arations
an d o ne was dram ati c al ly pre se nte d at o ur n ation al c entennial
in 18 7 6
l
The C e n t e nni a l P ro t e s t
Th e centennial m arked twenty eight ye ars of unce asing and
fru strating c amp aigning for the i mprovem ent of wom en s po si
tion by th e e arly feminist activists Neither l aw n o r s oc iety h ad
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of t h fol lowing dis c ussion i d iv d f o m E liz b
G g E d Hi t o y f Wo m n S ff g V l 1
1
All
a e,
e
s
.
,
s
r
o
a
s
er
e
u
ra
e,
a
r
o
.
et h
C
ad y
S t o Sus B
t an
n,
an
.
o
A nt h ny
and
M t i ld
a
a
J
.
93
.
yi eld ed t o the fervor of the s e women in spite of their prote sta
tion s and education al efforts T h e de c ad e s o f politic al s chis m
over s lavery an d the Civil W ar whi c h c onverte d the n ation into
a divid ed arme d camp h ad undermine d the wo men s movement
drawing th e attention an d e nergy o f the Am erican pe ople away
“
”
fr o m th e wom an s que stion Now th at the n ation was prep ar
ing for its 1 00 t h birth d ay h aving survived the division legi s
l ated against slavery and m and ate d univer s al m anh o o d suf
frage the le adership s e i z e d, the opportunity to reinstate th e
cl aim s to women s r i ghts It w as symbolic ally appropri ate to
redres s th e governm ent for h aving p as se d the 1 5 t h Am endment
which exclud ed women fro m t h e v o te j u st a s the framers of th e
Am eri c an n ation h ad reno unce d the B riti sh g o vernment for its
ob stru c tion of c ivil j u sti c e ?
T h e wom en s m ov e m e nt m ad e u se of the founding experien ce
in other w ays On th e oc casi o n of its in c epti o n in 1 8 4 8 in S e n ec a
Falls New York the w o men h ad ad apte d the text o f th e D e cl a
ration o f I nd epend en ce to their grievan c e s an d d em and s and
circ ul ated th e w o m an s De c l arati o n of S ent i ments a s a pl atfo rm
and strategy for support and leg i sl ative relief S everal o f the
“
more cour age ou s m em bers h ad refu se d t o be taxed with o ut
”
repres ent ation and s uffered the l o s s of pers on al pr o pe rty as a
co ns e quen c e I n th e c all to the 9 t h annu al co nventi o n o f the
N ation al W o m an S uffrage A s s oc i ati o n th e P re s ident remind ed
the m e mb er ship th at the c entenni al dis c u s si o n o f republi c an
prin ciple s was imp o rtant to women Sh e wr o te :
.
,
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,
fl
‘
’
c
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Liberty
i s therefo re but the herit age o f one
h alf the pe o ple and th e centenni al will be but the
celebration o f the ind epe nden c e of one -h alf the n ati o n
T h e m en al o ne o f this country live in a republi c the
w o men enter the se c ond hundred ye ar s of n ation al l i fe
2
as p o litical s l aves
to d ay
,
,
,
.
,
.
sentiment w as affirm ed in a re soluti o n p as s ed at th e c o n
v e nt io n whi c h t oo k n o te of the fact th at the wo men o f 18 7 6 h ave
”
“
gre ate r re as o n fo r dis c o ntent re belli o n and r e volution th an
th e p atriots o f 1 7 7 6
T his
,
.
“
feminists h aving re s o lved t o prote st again st the c eleb
”
rati o n of ind epe nd en c e
d ecid ed t o o rgani z e a c o unter
c elebration in Phil ad elphia which would cre ate gre ater s o lid ar
ity am ong th e dis enfran c hised w o men and d em o nstrate th e vi
t ality o f th e m ov ement Alth ough the wom en encountered an
initial diffi c u lt y b e c au se as m arried wom en th ey c ould not co n
tra c t fo r t h e rental o f he adqu arter s in the hist o ric city this
remind e r of th e legal ine quity betwe e n th e sexes o nly enh an ced
Th e
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2
b
I id
94
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,
p
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18
.
m ess age s from supporters throughout the l an d T h e mood was
high when the ceremony came t o a conclu sion with the singing
“
1
9
of a
th century utopi an song A stanz a from A Hundred
”
Ye ars Hen ce provid es a taste of th e c he erful rally s vision of
the wo rld in 1 9 7 6 :
.
.
’
T hen
’
wom an m an s p artner man s e qu al sh all stan d
Whil e b e auty an d h arm ony govern the l and T o think
for one s elf will be no offense T h e worl d will be thinking
’
,
,
,
,
,
a
h u n d r e d y e a rs h e n c e
4
.
A Hu m an L i n k
Almost a h alf century p as se d betwe en the centennial an d th e
ratifi c ation o f wom en s s uffrage in 1 92 0 ; an other fifty ye ars
b efo re the c amp aign was launche d for n ation al acceptance of
the E qu al R ights Am endment I n light of this p as s age of time
th e en duran ce of the fem i n i st com m i tment t o fe asib le change is
’
,
.
,
b etwe en th at first effort and th e 2 ot h ce ntury m o vement Ch ar
lotte P erkins G i lm an was only an ad o l e scent at the time o f the
.
.
third d e c ad e o f our c entury
Ch arl o tte G ilm an d e s cribe d herself as a sociol o gi st a student
of s oc i al ev o luti o n but we cl aim her tod ay a s a vi sion ary wh o
looked b eyond her c i r c u m st an c es into a future which g o e s b e
yond this generation s re ality I n th at time t o c o m e which sh e
pe rceived as inevit able so c iety w o uld be e quitable b al an c e d
an d he althy M e n w om en and c hil dren woul d b e rel ate d t o on e
an o ther with o ut the o nu s of power an d role fi xit y He r p e rs pe c
tive on family life in dividual and s o c i al he alth nutrition c hild
c are and urb an pl anning provid es a ri c h s ource for those of u s in
qu est of pl an s and vi si o n s for the imm edi ate future
Th e prolifi c writing of G ilm an in c lu ding the sole re s po n s ib il
ity for th e p ubli c ation of a monthly woman s j ourn al (The
F o re ru nne r 1 9 09— 1 9 1 7 ) which she wr o te edited an d distributed
with out as sist an c e tra c e a m ovement away from the p at ri arc
h al hom e to an open a s soc i ation o f intelligent engros sed pe o ple
From th e V ict o ri an s c en e of dom e stic d epe nd en c e to a glob ally
interd epen d ent and re sp o n s ib le s ociety we s ee women e merge
.
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I id
96
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39
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as e qu al p articip ants in a dyn amic and cre ative community A
brief sketch o f this d evelopme nt follows :
A ) Depen dency as sickne s s
P erhaps the most h arrowing account o f wom an s symbolic
confine ment i s n arrate d in the novella Th e Y e l l o w Wa l lp ap e r
a story ( p artly auto bio graphi c al ) about the p sychological
d eterioration o f a mid dle cl as s w ife / m o t h e r T h e metaphor of
entrapm ent i s pre sente d in the heroine s o bs e s sion with th e
b edroom wallp ape r which gradu ally b ecom e s entangled with
her re ality T o Gilm an the stultifying atmosphere o f the V ic t o
ri an home le ad s to the de stru ction of family life In pl ace o f
genuine c are and affe c tion the spontaneou s expre s sion of in
n
i
n
t e rc o n e c t o
give s way to robot like ex c h ange betwe en per
sons living u nd er th e s ame roof
B ) I nd ep endence as he alth
G ilman s rel entl es s c ritiqu e of the h ome a view th at Am eri
cans id o li z ed an unh e althy arrange ment b ase d u pon th e fas
t id io u s division an d sep aration o f s oci al rol es appe ar s in all her
“
works R eiterating the frailtie s of the se xu o econo mi c fun c
”
tion which cl aimed wom an as wife -mother an d m an as bre ad
winne r an d sole s upport this ingenu ou s writer pointed to th e
myth of n atural skills an d pro c livitie s T h e wife mother i s seen
as on e who frets over s atisfyi ng th e whim s of hu sb and and c hil d
w ith out the knowledge or experience to choose wis ely A life
involved with the gratifi c ation o f other s cannot re s ult in s elf
s atisfa c ti o n or person al a c complishm ent J o hn K enneth G al
”
“
b rait h s re c e nt rem arks about wom an as
r
c y t o serv ant
t h e P u b li c P u rp o s e 1 9 7 3 ) e cho G ilm an s c on c ern
(E c o no m i c s
about c o n sumeri sm as a life rol e Only with e du cation an d th e
o pp o rtunity t o p articip ate a s a cre ative me mb er of so ciety
through m e aningful work will women pr o ve th e valu e o f s oci al
sh aring o f w o rk /h o m e roles
C) Collaborati on a s so c i al go od
Am ong th e visi o n s of Gilm an are city c o ndominium s where
men wom en and c hildren interact with sp ontaneity an d s up
port P arenting o f the yo ung w as see n to be as much a p ro fe s
“
s io n al fu nction as m edicin e an d law T h e ho me w o ul d b e
kitch
”
e nl e s s
an d all foo d prep aration an d enj oyment w o ul d be
sh ared by the community I n H erl a n d
a utopi an fantasy
where sisters live in warm and tend er rel ationship G ilm an
forecasts a time when the s oci al obj e c tive s of pe ace and love wil l
b e a re ality P erh ap s her proj ecti o n i s no t to b e in the third
century but th e cooperative and energetic as s oci ation of e qu als
is em erging tod ay
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97
P AR T T W O
Wo m e n of t he Thi rd C en tu ry
I n proj ecting th e situ ation o f wom an in the third century we
are not cl aiming cl airvoy ant powers fo r peering deeply into th at
future no r are We as suming the p o sture of the futurist wh o
envision s living in tetrahe drons in interstellar sp ace We are
ins te ad t akin g t h e m ore m o d erate po sition of proj ecting into th e
future o n t h eib as is o f tren d s alre ady with u s M any of tho se
'
tren d s whi c h are now em erging into re ality are th e fruition of
dre am s and vision s held by wom en o f this n ation writing o ne
hundred and two hu ndred ye ars ago From th e per spe ctive of
history we le arn th at so c iety h as b een slow to i ncorporate th e se
vision s of change im agined by women writers from the begin
ning s of this country to the pre sent time However we are
b eginning to se e som e of the se societ al ch ange s ar o und u s and
o n the b asis of the s e tre nd s fo r change w e can m ake s o me
prediction s for the future
.
.
t
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f Con t e mp o ra ry Wo m e n s M ov e m e nt
T here are th o se wh o affirm th at t h e trend the m aj or s oc io
cultural factor pre s ently taking place in our so c iety i s the co n
te mporary wo men s m ovement It i s s een t o be th at c atalyst
which ab s orb s t he e con o mic -politico -ide ologi c al re alitie s o f the
1
pre s ent and s pe lls o ut the future T h e wo men s move ment h as
t aken root in th e lives of wo m en everywhere in this c ountry an d
worldwi de W omen of all age s of all situ ations of race and cl as s
fin d th at th ey h ave new option s and opportu nitie s T h o se o f u s
with a historic al per spe ctive s ee th at the h ope s and vision s o f
one hu ndre d ye ars ag o o f two hund red ye ar s ago are m o re an d
m ore de s criptive of the live s we live in c onte mporary so c iety
We d o not se e an apo calyps e in which the old h as p as sed away
and th e new h as c ome rather we se e a so ciety th at h as c hange d
and ch anged in l arge m e as ure b e c au se wom en h ave b egu n to
per c eive them s elve s differently ; they se e the m selve s as if re
fl e c t e d from a new set o f mirrors And m o re import antly
wom en h ave b egun to a c t on the s e new p er c epti o n s of the m
s elves A s they h ave acte d societal c hange s h ave begu n to oc c ur
L egis lation an d pu bli c pre s s ure have begu n t o we aken old
stereotype s new fo rm s o f life and w o rk are d ev eloping
I mp a c t
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,
Ch a rl o tt e P e rk i n s G i l m a n s V i s i o na ry H op e s
P re s e n t a nd F u tu re
’
as
Ins t ru c ti v e
fo r
we
h
ave
previo
u
sly
n
o
ted
Charl o tte P erkin s Gilman s sig
As
ni fi c ant w o rk Wo m en a nd t h e E c o n o m
y is an example o f an
’
,
.
,
,
K p Lil d M nd i s R no s G d
o f S u l R l tionsh i ps Wo m
Fu tu
ar
,
re
98
a an
ex
a
a
e a
,
“
e
,
”
,
en
e rl e
en
ss S u li t
ex
a
y:
M l -F m l P s ych ologic l E p lo tio n of t h
M ggi T i pp d N w Yo k A b o Hous 1 9 74
A
i n t he Yea r 2 0 0 0 ,
a e
a
e
e
r
a
a e
,
e
.
e
r
,
x
r
ra
r
e,
e
.
In spe aking t o the qu e stion Where are w o m en going
women will tell yo u th at they are going t o work
“
m o st
?”
.
is th e most o bviou s and av ail able soluti o n to the
dre ad ful emptine s s of h aving nothing to do of feeling
th at you h ave n ever d evel o pe d y o ur o wn uniqu e id en
tity of believing th at y o u are not re ally worthy of
estee m
it atte sts t o the in ability of the tradition al
feminine r o le to gratify some l arge s e ct o r of the fem al e
popul ation
it is al s o evid en ce of the gre ater v alu e
th at m any wom en give t o su c ce s sful in di v idu al c o m
p e t it iv e a c hiev ement th an to nurturant supportive
5
tradition al re spon sibilitie s
T hat
,
,
,
,
,
,
.
A w o m an at work i s an ind epen d ent adult hum an b eing
o pe rating in a publ i c way t aking res pon sibility for her a c tion
T his i s the hope expre s s ed by G ilm an in her visi o n of the
e c on o mi c ally ind epen dent w o m an
.
.
Wo m en a t Wo rk
M o st wo men work b ec au se they h ave to and for the s am e
re as o n th at men work they ne ed the inc o me E very ye ar m o re
wom en are entering the l ab o r for c e ; the m o st rapidly gr o wing
s egment o f w o m en at w o rk are m o thers o f young c hildren I n
1 9 7 0 the m o thers of twe nty -s i x million chil dren under eighteen
ye ars of age w e re in the w o rk fo rce ; alm o st six mill i o n o f the s e
children we re und er six ye ars One third o f all mothers with at
le ast o ne c hild und er six were i n the l abo r force as we re ab o u t
6
h alf the m o ther s of o lder children T here are perhap s tw o
m aj o r trend s th at a cco unt fo r the ri se o f working m other s o f
young c hildren Th e first i s the fa c t th at the faste st gr o wing
family u nit Ameri c a i s the single p arent family wi th the single
p arent m o st o ften b eing the m o ther Th e s e co n d i s th at i n an
in fl ati o n ary e c on o my it i s i n c re asingly ne c e s s ary for b o th p ar
ents to work in o rd er t o m aintain an ac c u st o m ed stand ard of
.
,
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,
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.
living
.
S e x-t yp e d E mp l o ym en t
A s w o men are entering the l abor force they are entering it
and most often staying in it at the lowe st level positi o n s O c c u
p at io nal s egregati o n by sex h as c h ange d very little dur i ng the
p a s t tw o d e c ad es W o men first entere d the l ab o r fo r c e in dram
ti c num bers b etwe en 18 8 0 an d 1 9 2 0 when the E astern an d
,
.
,
.
um s c Go l Good C d b o d P o pl Th Am c W
m
Wh Wi ll S h B ? M
Lou s
K th y A B l k d B v ly Hill s CA Gl nco P ss
1 97 4
K ps J u it M Th O cc up tio s Wid E cono mic Opp o u it Th Am i c Wo m Wh Wil l S h
B ? M y L ou is M B
d K th y A B l k
B v ly Hill s CA Gl co P ss 1 9 74
d
5
u
B ard w ick , J d it h ,
an :
o
“
e
o
And r gyny
ary
e
H
ani ti
i M c B e e and
and
a
a
r
,
or
n
a e, e
.
ar
ar
y,
s
e
.
e
e,
er
”
e ri
e
,
e
,
an
e
re
o
,
.
9
re
e
1 00
,
ar
an
“
a
.
e
,
c
e
e e an
a
a
n
r
n
rt
er
:
.
a
e, e
s
.
e
er
n
y,
,
”
er
e
,
en
e
an
re
a n:
,
o
.
e
S outhern E urope an immigrants arrived
M ost o f the immigrants , being po or and
on Americ a s shore s
unskilled found th at
survival hinge d on putting the entire family t o work As more
and m o re wom en took j obs in garment fa c torie s cann erie s an d
laundries the female l abor force sh owe d the sh arpe st upturn o f
T h e women were at the lowe st eche
any pe riod prio r t o
lon s of e mployment T he se were the women w h o went to work
out o f she er nece s sity fo r survival and we re no t the middle cl as s
nineteenth century wom en of whom G ilm an spe aks A s mid dle
cl as s wom en j oined working cl as s women at work they t o o
—
—
entered and staye d at the se s ame l o w levels o f e mploym ent
T h e bre aking up of l abor markets into m al e and fem al e j ob s
h as been credite d with a l arge p art o f the growth in wom en s
labor forc e p articipation during the p ast two d e c ad es W omen
are still repres ented in a very n arrow range of careers In 1 9 7 0
tw o third s of all women workers were empl o ye d as c leri c al ser
8
vi c e and sales w o rkers o r as d o mesti c s ervants Cleri c al occ u
p at io ns provid e j ob s fo r on e third of all fe m ale empl o ye e s and
service j ob s take an other 22 pe rc ent W o men h ave l o st ground
in the profes sion al and techni c al are as in re c ent decade s
W ithin the profes sion al are a women s prop o rtion of specific j ob s
which they h ave tradition ally held h as al so declined W o m en
represented 28 pe rcent of the fa c ulty in in stitution s of high er
e du c ation in 1 94 0 but only 22 pe rcent in 1 9 6 9 S ince then the
situ ation h as no t m e asurably improved W o men s sh are of s er
vi c e work h as in cre as ed by almost one -h alf from 4 0 to 59 per
cent o f the servi c e j ob s Women m ake up the bu lk of the hou se
hold workers ; 9 7 percent in 1 9 7 0
’
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’
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M any j o b s rem ain virtu ally clos e d t o wom en E mpl o yers view
ing j ob applicants w aiting in line fo r the mid -l evel and top
po sition s ( or even fo r training slots ) do not find women in the
queue W o m e n are in a different line altogether only rarely
9
c ompeting with men for the b etter j ob s
.
‘
x
,
.
.
B re a k i ng t he Cy c l e
W om en of t o d ay fa c e economi c ine quitie s in o pportunitie s to
train for an d enter a field ine quitie s in wage s fo r the s ame j ob
ine quities in p rom otion and ine quitie s in the pos sibilitie s for
in c re as ing o n e s re sp o nsibilities I n c re asing the number o f
w o m en in le ad ership po siti o n s re quire s intern al p sy c hol o gi c al
10
c h ange s an d external ins tituti o n al c h an g e s I f the c y c l e of
,
,
’
.
.
Ch f Willi m H Th Am i c Wo m H Ch i S oci l E co om c d P oli i c l Rol 1 920-1 97 0
N w Y o k O fo d U iv s i
P ss 1 97 2
C o ss K P t ici Th E d u c ti o o f Wom T od nd T o m o ow Th Am i c Wo m Wh Wi ll S h
B ?M
Lo u is M B
d K h
A Bl k
B v l Hill s CA Gl co P ss 1 97 4
d
K ps Ib id
7
a e,
e
8
r
r
1°
,
,
.
x
re
,
.
n
a,
e
e
,
r
a r
ary
e
9
a
“
c
er
er
an
ty
e
e e an
a n,
re
a
at
,
a ng
ng
a
n
,
i
,
t
an
a
e,
en
.
a
ay a
e, e
s
.
”
rr
e
er
y
e
,
,
,
er
en
e
an
re
a n:
,
o
e
.
.
B ardwic k , Ibid
.
.
n
ry n
er
.
101
w o m en s limited opportunitie s in the labor force is t o be bro ken
m any change s will h ave t o b e m ade b o th n o w and in the future
W omen will h ave to m ake a c areful re s tate ment of their
career potenti als as piration s will h ave to be bro ad ened W omen
will h ave t o ext e nd th eir j ob s e arch beyon d the tradition ally
fem ale occup ation s they will need expo sure to a wi der range of
c are ers T h e ade qu a c y of e ducation for wom en wi ll h ave t o be
qu es tione d fo r the amou nt an d kind of education a wom an h as
will m ake a profound difference in her life P atrici a Cro s s in
writing about th e e duc ation of wo me n to d ay an d to m orrow s ays
th at no fem al e high scho o l gradu ate shoul d b e permitt ed to
b ank h er entire e con omic future with s om eone el se h o wever
reli able lovable and promi sing he may see m at eighte en or
twenty High s chool te achers and c oun s el o rs will h ave to b e
trained s o th at they are we ll inform ed ab o ut the new role of
wo m en in the s ociety o f tom orrow E duc ators will h ave to u n
d e rs t and how the future of w o men will b e profoundly different
from th at o f the p ast they will h ave to c o mprehend th e ful l
implication s of the so ci al revolution that i s t aking place in the
11
live s of women
Affirm ative action p o licie s and program s and an ar o u sed pu b
lic cons cien ce are beginning to ope n n ew opp o rtu nitie s fo r wom
e n E mployers are b eginning to view wo men as s eri o u s c o nt e n
d ers for the b ette r j o b s but s oc ietal stru cture s h ave m any
change s yet to b e m ad e if women are to b e en co urage d t o bre ak
the c y c l e o f in e quity in which they find the m selves
’
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Vi s i ons
r
m
s
l
F
o
c
i
e
t
a
w
o
N
e
S
f
o
One of th e m ore vision ary sugge stion s m ade for n ew societal
form s th at would affect th e working life of women i s m ad e by
Je s sie B ern ard S h e s ee s th at the w o m an of the future is going
to b e both a mothe r and a l abor forc e p articip ant B e c au se of
this re ality c ert ain change s in s oc i al in stitutions are g o ing t o
h av e to b e m ad e in b eh alf o f wom en who are both m other s an d
workers B ernard b elieve s th at G o s ta R e h n s pl an for
”
“
ge neraliz ed drawing right s offer s a m od el which w o uld m ake
it p o s sible t o integrate the two r o le s o f w o rker and m o ther T his
plan is on e in whi c h :
g o vernm ents an d indu strial organ i z ation s should
m ake it a policy g o al to provid e th e individu al with the
gre ate st po s sible d egree o f fre ed o m t o d etermine the
allo c ation of his or her own time am ong different u se s
And end e avor should be m ad e to achieve this free d o m
.
.
’
.
.
.
C o ss
r
1 02
,
Ibi d
.
R os si Alice S e d Th e F e m i n i s t P ap ers F ro m Ad a m s t o d e
B e au v o i r New York B antam B ooks 1 9 7 4
S tanton E li z ab eth C ady e t al Hi s t o ry of Wo m a n S uffrag e V o l
1 R oche ster New York Ch arles M ann 1 88 1
T ripp M aggi e e d Wo m a n i n t h e Ye a r 2 0 0 0 New York Arbor
Hou se 1 9 7 4
Women s Co alition fo r the T hird Century D e c l a ra ti o n of Int e r
d ep e nd en c e C ambridge M A P atri c i a B K epler 1 9 7 5
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’
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1 04
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CHAN G E O F
ADD R E S S
N ame
New Addre s s
Old Addre s s
S en d t o : M ilitary Ch aplains R eview
U S Army Chaplain B oard
Fort W ad sworth , S I, N ew York 1 03 05
’