SLAVERY,REBELLION, AND
REVOLUTION IN THE AMERICAS
A Historiographical
Scenarioon
theThesesofGenoveseand Others
A. J.WILLIAMS-MYERS
StateUniversity
ofNewYork
atNewPaltz
To acknowledgethe200thanniversry
ofthebourgeois-democratic
FrenchRevolution
istobe mindful
notonlyofitsworldwide
impact
onemergent
orwould-be
emergent
nation-states
inthe18th-centuryworldbutalso ofitsequallychain-shattering
Western
tripartite
cry
of liberte,egalite,andfraternite
on Africansheldin bondageby
Franceand otherestablished,
and would-beemergent
emergent,
In
states. a similarvein,we arereminded
Western
of
slaveholding
the1983gathering
ofscholarsat Stanford
to celebrate
University
the40thanniversary
ofthepublication
ofAptheker's
seminalbook,
scholars
AmericanNegroSlave Revolts.Duringthatconference,
examinedpapersbuiltaroundAptheker's1943 positionas exand rebelliousness
pressedin thebookthat"discontent
werenot
ofAmerican
onlyexceedingly
common,
but,indeed,characteristic
1987[1938],p. 374). In 1976,theauthor
Negroslaves"(Aptheker,
movedbeyondhis 1943positiontoemphatically
positthat"resisis thecoreofhistory"
tance,notacquiescence,
(Craton,1982,p. 11).
thekeyingredient
Resistance,notacquiescence,characterized
of1791.Cominginthewake
ontheHaitianRevolution
thatbrought
was profoundly
theHaitianRevolution
oftheFrenchRevolution,
AUTHOR'S NOTE: The ideas for thisarticlegrewout of a 1989 National
Endowment
for theHumanities(NEH) SummerSeminarat the University
of
underthedirection
California,
Berkeley,
ofRichardHerr.Theauthoris indebted
tothe
contributions
toDr Herrand otherNEH participants
fortheirstimulating
seminar.
JOURNALOF BLACK STUDIES, Vol.26 No. 4, March1996 381-400
? 1996Sage Publications,
Inc.
381
382
JOURNALOF BLACK STUDIES /MARCH 1996
as
particularly
oftheAge ofRevolution,
bytherhetoric
affected
suchas theAmerican
documents
it was expressedin democratic
andtheFrench
theU.S. Constitution,
ofIndependence,
Declaration
oftheRightsofManandCitizen.Theyear1991,thereDeclaration
oftheir
fore,markedfortheHaitianpeoplethe200thanniversary
France.As thefirst
incipifrom
forindependence
revolutionary
fight
Haiti
entBlack stateon theroadto freedomin thehemisphere,
systemwithinwhich
challenged"theworldcapitalist
successfully
slaveryitselfwas embedded"(Genovese,1979,p. 374) and,tothe
whose1938
ofthatworld,
won.InthewordsofJames,
astonishment
"the
to thatfirstBlack revolution,
book standsas a monument
peasantseverywhere,
slavesworkedthelandandlikerevolutionary
oftheiroppressors"
(James,1963
theyaimedattheextermination
[1938],p. 66).
onceandforall,the
thepeculiarinstitution
Resolvedtodestroy
Haitianpeople,underthe leadershipof ToussaintL'Ouverture,
humbledthe
humiliatedthe mightyBritishlion unprecedently,
in Spain,and,as arguedelse"poormanofEurope"as epitomized
ofNapoleon'smagnifithegraveyard
where,"madetheircountry
in theNew World.In
centarmyas well as hisimperialambitions
theend,theAmericashaditsfirstBlacknationalstate"(Pieterse,
1988,p. 5).
The HaitianRevolutionwas a childof theAge of Revolution
a revolutionary
(1775-1815),a Blackchildatthatbut,nevertheless,
withtheothersbecauseof herbrazen
intertwined
one intimately
and equality(Palmer,1964,Vol. 2,
claimto therightsof liberty
this
theFrenchhadclaimedearlier
It
was
claim,something
p. 338).
thatmarked
whatGenovese(1979)
butsolelyforWhiteFrenchmen,
ofslaverevoltsand,indeed,
pointinthehistory
saw as "a turning
ofthehumanspirit"(p. xix);andinthewordsofDavis (1966),the
orders"
datewhenpeopleofcolorin Haitichallenged"privileged
so as to displacethem-August22, 1791-was a "pivotaldatein
thehistory
oftheNew World"(p. 144).
Using Genovese's idea of a turningpointas an appropriate
oftheAfrican
incentiveto reexaminethehistoricalsignificance
theaim of thisarticleto
revoltsin theAmericas,it is therefore
potentialof those
and revolutionary
theevolutionary
reconsider
whichpeakedwiththeHaitianRevolurevoltsandconspiracies,
/THESES OF GENOVESE AND OTHERS
Williams-Myers
383
scenario.Butfirst,
arguedhistorical
an appropriately
tion,through
ofslaveryandslave
aboutthehistoriography
remarks
a fewcursory
follow.
resistance
SLAVERY,SLAVE RESISTANCE,
AND THE HISTORIOGRAPHY
book,andapproxiofAptheker's
In thewakeofthepublication
of Genovese'sbook
matelythreedecadesbeforethepublication
(even thoughit is arguablethatJames'sbook was a precursor),
thehistorical,
ofbooksthatsoughttodiscredit
appeareda number
of
in
writings
the
II
reflected
as
School
Progressive
War
pre-World
Phillips(1918) suchas hisAmericanNegroSlaveryandthoseof
Froude
JamesAnthony
suchas thechauvinist
someBritishwriters
bothPhillipsand
on theCaribbean(Thomas,1969). Succinctly,
thatsoughtto projectthe
a schoolofthought
Frouderepresented
rasa
benevolenceof a slave systemand theacquiescence-tabula
Phillips's
oftheslaves.Thebooksthatsoughttodiscredit
mentality
whohadbeenidenSchoolwerepublishedbywriters
Progressive
WarII
a
School,
post-World
with
the
Counter-Progressive
tified
ofthe1970s.Thosepre-1970s
periodthatpeakedbythebeginning
by Stampp(1956),
arerepresented
bybookswritten
publications
(1967), andevenTannenElkins(1959), Davis (1966), Patterson
School,Stampp'sbook
baum(1946). FortheCounter-Progressive
pointby arguingagainstthe
epitomizestheso-calledtransitional
Schoolandbydemonstrating
oftheProgressive
racistmethodology
dramafromthepointof
intheAmerican
ofAfricans
thehistoricity
bookwas a concerted
of
the
The
African.
of
the
publication
view
thehistory
ofunderstanding
the" 'peculiar
urgency'
movetoheighten
thepresent',"
especiallythe
of slaveryas a 'keyto understanding
of Stampp'sworkcallingforan examination
implicitimmediacy
of"whatslaverymeanttotheNegroandhowhereactedtoitbefore
tribulations"
(Davis,
onecancomprehend
[theNegro's]morerecent
1986,pp. 189-190).
oftextsappearedthatcontribinthe1970s,a number
Beginning
fromtheCounter-Progressive
periodtowhat
utedtothetransition
period.
can be calledthePost-Counter-Progressive
appropriately
384
JOURNALOF BLACK STUDIES /MARCH 1996
of textson slavery
by thepublication
This periodis exemplified
in the
inherent
racial
malaise
thatsoughtto explainthepervasive
ofthe
girders
thesocioeconomic
decipher
Americasandtofurther
methodscientific
a moreinnovative,
through
peculiarinstitution
ology.Amongthebookswithracial,analyticfociaretheworksof
(1981, 1988),andCell
(1969), Degler(1971),Fredrickson
Jordan
by theentrance
approachis identified
(1982). A moreinnovative
as is evident
(quantifiers),
intothedebateoftheeconometricians
ofGenovese(1965) andCurtin(1969) as well
in thepublications
econoa lamentable
(1974) publication,
as Fogel andEngerman's
All threepublicationswere partof the
metricdreamdeferred.
the 1957 workof Conrad
Revolution"and mirrored
"Cliometric
andMeyer(1958).
of slaveryin thePost-Counter-Progressive
The historiography
was
and thethesisof resistance
strengthened,
periodwas further
inerudite
studiessuchas thoseofBlassingame
moredemonstrable,
(1972); Bracey,Meier,and Rudwick(1978); Genovese(1976);
Mullin(1972); Palmer(1976); Rout(1976); Starobin(1970); and
book was first
Wood (1974). In 1979,36 yearsafterAptheker's
FromRestudy,
Genovesepublishedhis long-awaited
published,
thuscappingthePost-Counter-Progressive
bellionto Revolution,
atan integrative,
period.On theonehand,thebookwas an attempt
ofthegrowingstudieson thehistoriograsynthesis
interpretative
phyof slaverevolts(Bracey,1987). On theotherhand,thebook
notacquiescence,
ofthethesisofresistance,
was clearlyinsupport
as themotiveforceofAfricanslaverevoltsintheAmericas.
THE BOOK-FROM REBELLION
TOREVOLUTION-JUXTAPOSED
FromRebellionto Revolutionappearsnotto have gottenthe
thatthe contentsbetweenits pages merit.It was,
recognition
perhaps,seen simplyas a bold Marxistanalysisof hemispheric
intheUnitedStateswere
ofwhichthosethatoccurred
slaverevolts,
in variablescondifferences
moreperipheral
giventheenormous
whichin
andtopography,
duciveforrevoltssuchas demography
Williams-Myers
/THESESOF GENOVESEANDOTHERS 385
andconrevolts
inholding
theUnitedStatesactedmoreas a retardant
and frenumber
the
that
fact
the
Given
spiraciesto a minimum.
intheCaribbeanandpartsof
andconspiracies
quencyofrebellions
theAmericas,otherthantheUnitedStates,werehigherbecause
variables,thisshouldnot be a reasonto
of certainconvenient
ofGenovese's(1979) book.
thehistorical
significance
peripheralize
in the
thedynamicsof humanconditions
If we areto understand
on us to view
as Stampphas argued,thenitis incumbent
present,
ofslaverevolts
thehistory
ofunderstanding
the"peculiarurgency"
Rebellion
From
past.
of
the
mistakes
to
the
as a blueprint avoiding
can assistus in suchan avoidancebecauseit is an
to Revolution
when
anatomyof a revolution-acruciblein whoseingredients,
process,notonlyrevealthe
analytical
toanevolutionary,
subjected
ofsucheventsin
butalso becomea predicter
seeds ofrevolution
motive
Predict?How? The answerlies in Aptheker's
thefuture.
whichremainsconstantin face of
forceof history:resistance,
humanoppression.
astutedescription
Genovese'sbookis a subtlebutanalytically
but
perspective;
ina hemispheric
ofslaverevoltsandconspiracies
morethanthat,it is the studyof such revoltson a historical
Of all the
buildsup to revolution.
thatprecipitantly
continuum
the
ofextergoal
one
completing
successful
theonlytruly
revolts,
Yet,ina way,
wastheHaitianRevolution.
theiroppressors
minating
tothecontinulendingthemselves
all ofthemwereevolutionary,
tacticsto meettheeverandmilitary
ofpersonnel
ing refinement
in whichtheplanter
milieu
and
political
socioeconomic
changing
Butfortheplanters,
theadvantage.
classwasso adeptatmaintaining
werepersistent,
lightning
agonizing,
the revoltsand conspiracies
Achilles'heel.
ofprobing
painas ifinsearchofimperialism's
spurts
ThoseprobeswouldsoonfindtheirmarkintheAge ofRevolution
a
ofToussaintL'Ouverture,
on San Domingoundertheleadership
coachmanandstablegroom.
calculating
deftly
Genovese'sbookpullstogether,
ofa revolution,
As an anatomy
the
continuum,
and
perspective alonga historical
ina hemispheric
perennialcrises of a parasiticeconomicsystemcaughtin the
tocapitalism."
According
ofmoving"fromseigneurialism
throngs
roleof
totheintegral
testifies
better
to Genovese(1979),"nothing
386
JOURNALOF BLACK STUDIES /MARCH 1996
slaveryin the transition
fromseigneurialism
to capitalism-in
ideologicalas well as socioeconomicterms-thanthehistory
of
theslave revolts"(p. xviii).It is further
in
argued thebookthat,
priorto theAge ofRevolution,
revoltsin therestorationist
phase
neverdirectly
"challengedtheworldcapitalistsystem"butwere
atthemargin
ofthecolonialworld,
"todefend
content,
their
traditional
of
conceptions theirownrights[as maroons]"(p. xix).Whenthat
challengedid occurin the late 18thcenturyand intothe 19th
itwas revolutionary
andpartandparcelofthebourgeoiscentury,
wavesweepingtheWestern
democratic
world.
revolutionary
As an anatomy
ofa revolution,
whatenhancesthebook'sargumentand historiographical
is whenit is juxtaposed
significance
withsomeofthemorerecent
ofthe1980sdecadesuch
publications
as Craton's(1982) book,Thompson's(1987) book,andtheantholeditedbyOkihiro(1986). Therearesomeearlier
ogyonresistance
writers
whoseworksare complementary
as well. Some of these
suchas Price(1973) andPorter(1932, 1943),Porter
earlierwriters
on therelations
betweenBlacksandIndiansin the
havingwritten
inFlorida),as withthemorerecent
UnitedStates(especially
writers
of the 1980s, not onlycomplement
Genovese'sbook but also
dictumofa continuity
ofresistance
support
Aptheker's
toslavery.
Craton's(1982) work,although
withthebasicconcepts
agreeing
of Genovese,does soft-peddle
the book's idea of the Haitian
as a "decisivewatershed
Revolution
betweensimplerebellions
and
truerevolution"
(p. 14); and becauseTestingtheChainsconcentrates
on British
Caribbean
itplaysdownGenovese'sextraslavery,
neous influenceson rebellionsand conspiraciesand plays up
intrinsic
forces.
intrinsic
forces(effects
By emphasizing
ofchange),
Cratonsoughtto shed"lighton theissue of whether
slaveswere
morelikelytorebelifdriven
ontight
reinsoronloose[reins]"
(p. 14).
Thompson'sbook,likethatofGenovese,is comparative
witha
andaddressesthethemeofAfricanslave
orientation
hemispheric
in a veryperceptive,
resistance
analyticfashionwhilelayingout
beforethereaderthefactors
to thediaspora.It is the
contributing
book's thirdsectionthatis of interest
herein thatit delineates
Africanresistanceto slaveryin theAmericasby describing
"the
waysand meanswhichslavesdevisedand adoptedfordefeating
/THESES OF GENOVESE AND OTHERS
Williams-Myers
387
thesystem"(Thompson,1987,pp. 258-259).Price's(1973) book
butPrice'sbook,
likeThompson's,
andcomparative
is hemispheric
regionalcase
inhighlighting
lendsspecificity
unlikeThompson's,
intheAmericas.
studiesofslaveresistance
Okihiro's(1986) book concernsitselfwithAfricanresistance
parallelswithrespect
toAfricatodemonstrate
beyondtheAmericas
dictum.In addition,thebook,throughsome of
to theAptheker
adds the feminineperspectiveto the
its femalecontributors,
lendsstrength
andthereby
studyof slaverevoltsandconspiracies
Terborg-Penn,
1975;Steady,1981;
(Marthurin,
tothehistoriography
& Steady,1987).
Marthurin,
THE MAKINGOF THE REVOLUTION:
SIGNIFICANTHISTORICALVARIABLES
phase and/orwhatGenovese(1979)
Beforetherevolutionary
phase is reached,it is arguable
termedthebourgeois-democratic
andundevelofkeyvariablesthatwereproblematic
thata number
leadership
tobe resolved.Thevariableofa visionary
opedhadfirst
Africanleadership.
restorationist
had to supersedea reactionary,
hadto give
ofthatAfricanleadership
andparticularism
Ethnicity
overcome
tack
to
universal
heterogeneous,
waytoa moreinclusive,
theAfricanleaderof scale.Ultimately,
problemsofenlargement
of
by an incorporation
ship had to be replacedby or tempered
Africanswhoseangleof visionwas forward-looking
creole-born
ideologyof the Age of
the bourgeois-democratic
and mirrored
Africanleaders,although
thesecreole-born
Revolution.Further,
andinpositionsof
andhighlyskilledinvariouscrafts
acculturated
to transhadto committhemselves
on theplantations,
leadership
to revoand
rebellions
from
conspiracies
slaveuprisings
forming
of accommodation
as a byproduct
lutionby rejectingself-denial
Havingreachedthislevel of conwiththepeculiarinstitution.
thenhadto convincethemasses,from
sciousness,thisleadership
a processof consciousnesswhomtheirpowerderived,through
The process
was in theirbestinterest.
raisingthattherevolution
suchas
elementsof Europeanacculturation
involvedcombining
388
JOURNALOF BLACK STUDIES /MARCH 1996
fashionedas
appropriately
theapocalyptictenetsof Christianity,
change,withan Africanconofpoliticalandspiritual
instruments
sciousnessmoldedby millennialand messianicvalues of traditionalAfricanreligion(Craton,1982, pp. 243-350; Genovese,
[andconspira1979,p. 7). InthewordsofCraton(1982),"rebellion
occurredbecausetheleaders
therevolution]
cies and ultimately
their
[over time]were able to mobilizethe slaves, harnessing
forretaliatory
violence,and
theirpotential
exploiting
discontent,
oftheirdeepestdreams"(p. 252). Andforall
fulfillment
offering
creole-born
visionary,
thatacculturated,
ofthistocometofruition,
Africanleadershiphad to be in place because,as James(1963
pitchneed
[1938]) argued,"massesrousedto therevolutionary
(p. 94).
aboveall a clearandvigorousdirection"
A matureleadershipcadreis arguablein Genovese'srestoraparticuparochialandethnically
tionistphase,butitwaspolitically
laristic;flightand rebellionwereperceivedby thatAfrican-born
Ewe, Angolans)as
Ibos,Yoruba-Nagos,
leadership(Coromantee,
(Genovese,1979,
from
society"
tosociety-asa withdrawal
"external
vision
and/or
p. xviii).The outcomeof sucha limitedperception
ona largescaletheAmericas
throughout
wastheriseofmaroonage
of escaped slaves in the
the creationof marginalcommunities
South,andCentralAmerica.
CaribbeanandinNorth,
phase(Palmer,1976)
or "tribalregression"
The restorationist
intheAmericas
slaverebellions
ofAfrican
thepattern
characterized
the 19th
it
shadowed
which
after
the
18th
end
of
to the
century,
thehemisphere.
untiltheabolitionof slaverythroughout
century
and
ofslaveleadership
attribute
wasa pervasive
ethnicity
Although
suchas therevoltof 1522ontheisland
inrebellions
was reflected
of Hispaniola("the firstblack slave revoltin the New World"
[Clarke,1988,p. 54]), therevoltsin Mexicoofthe16thand 17th
thoseinColombiaandVenezuelaofthesamecenturies,
centuries,
and the 1712 and 1739 revoltsin New Yorkand Stono,South
creoleAfricaneletherewas an incipient
Carolina,respectively,
Africanleadershipcircles.
mentpresentwithinthepredominant
priortotheAge
andRoutall argueforitsappearance
Palmer,
Craton,
highlyschooled
Palmerarguesforan acculturated,
ofRevolution.
creole elementin the Africanslave rebellionsthatoccurredin
/THESES OF GENOVESE AND OTHERS
Williams-Myers
389
For example,the 1608
Mexico duringthe early 17thcentury.
ofMexicoCity,inwhicha kingandqueen
inthevicinity
conspiracy
outcome,
installedto reignovera victorious
wereceremoniously
by(exceptfortheking,Martin)"criollos"entirely
wasformulated
andslaves(Palmer,1976,p. 136).Butuntil
freeBlacks,mulattoes,
circlesreached
theleadership
creoleelementwithin
thatincipient
of liberation
its
ideology
it
merged
where
point
theevolutionary
of the
revolutions
bourgeois-democratic
"withthetrans-Atlantic
late eighteenth
century"(Genovese, 1979,p. 9) and displaced
limited,
reactionary,
leaders,itsvisionremained
theAfrican-born
andisolated.
creole
evolutionary,
In supportofthepresenceofan incipient,
phase,
therestorationist
circlesduring
within
theleadership
element
theresponse
characterized
it is possibleto arguethatifresistance
be
it
should
possible
equally
then
enslavement,
totheir
ofAfricans
and
betweenan increasedintensity
topositan arguablecorrelation
slave
extentof thatresistancewitha moremature,acculturated
lendscredencetotheslaverebelcadre.The foregoing
leadership
through
as
restorationist
the
phaseprogressed
liondebatebecause
anevolving,
andonintothe18thcentury,
the16thand17thcenturies
Africanleadershipcadre,highly
morematureand acculturated
adjusteditselftorespondappropriwithcreoleAfricans,
integrated
forcesto maintaincoveted,
external
intrinsic
and
both
atelyto
negotiableoptionswithinand withoutthe peculiarinstitution.
Flightand rebellionand theiroutcome-maroonage-remained
and theircreole
perennialphenomenaof Africanrestorationists
itself
concerned
cadre
and
more
the
leadership
more
but
offsprings,
ofthesystemboth
withnegotiableoptionsto tempertheseverity
soonreactedto
EnslavedandmaroonAfricans
andwithout.
within
traumatic
changesin the organic
countersudden,systemically
ofthepeculiarinstitution.
functioning
to suchreactionsto changeas "testing
Craton(1982) referred
onsucha theme
andpersuasively
thechains"andarguedadmirably
thanon "abforcesrather
withan emphasison slavery'sintrinsic
ofthe
the
all
ideologies
including
influences,
extraneous
stract
and
Age of Revolution(1775-1815)thatloom so largein manyacof
theeffects
counts"(p. 13). As Cratonstated,"By emphasizing
390
JOURNALOF BLACK STUDIES /MARCH 1996
betweenacchange,myview dismissesthesimpledichotomies
and
and resisters,
accommodators
and resistance,
commodation
slavesweremorelikelytorebel
shedslightontheissueofwhether
ifdrivenon tightreinsoron loose [reins]"(p. 38).
of
thisthesis,Cratondrewon severalincidents
To demonstrate
fromtheCaribbeanregion,one ofwhichis menslaveresistance
tookplace
ofthisarticle'sthesis.Theincident
tionedhereinsupport
on theislandofSt. Vincentbetween1763and 1773,whenBritish
warfromthe
hadto contendwitha guerrilla
officialsand settlers
BlackWindward
(as opposedtotheso-calledYellow)Caribswho
againstthe
undertheirleader,JosephChatoyer,
reacteddefenisvely
rushing
landstoWhiteplanters
gradualerosionoftheirtraditional
In additionto a politically
fromthe"sugarrevolution."
to benefit
BlackCaribleadership
under
calculating
astuteanddiplomatically
ofinterior
"hadtheadvantages
ofSt.Vincent
themaroons
Chatoyer,
withtheterrain
by nightand day,and superior
lines,familiarity
willto fight"(Craton,
skillsas wellas a greatlysuperior
fighting
tomaintain
wishing
andhisfollowers
1982,p. 151).WithChatoyer
with
the British
and
coveted
their
negotiableoptions,
manyof
oftheExchecquer,
fearful
ofthecostofsucha wartotheMinistry
thetwo partiesagreedto a peace treatysignedin May of 1773
(pp. 145-153).
suchas Genovese,Palmer,andothersgiveequalweight
Writers
theintrinsic,
variables.In arguing
andextraneous
to bothintrinsic
Genoveseputan emphasison theimpactofdepressedeconomics
economicimprovement.
classas wellas itsopposite,
ontheplanter
he
manybig slaverevolts
"Economicdistress," wrote,"provoked
localprovisioning
... wherewarandinadequate
inthehemisphere
and outright
starvation
oftenresultedin desperatefoodshortages
...
[which] triggered...
the massive risingon St. John[in the
Caribbean]in 1733.... [Other]revolts,however,came during
whichstimulated
expectations"
periodsofmaterialimprovement,
Douglasto support
(Genovese,1979,pp. 12-13).UsingFrederick
andLasch (1971) intimated
Fredrickson
thisidea ofexpectations,
wasmore
of"Douglas,resistance
thatifwearetoacceptthetestimony
andrisingexpectations"
(p. 180).
likelytoresultfromindulgence
/THESES OF GENOVESE AND OTHERS
Williams-Myers
391
and perhapstheidea of
of risingexpectations
A combination
Africanslavesdrivenon loose reinscouldaccountfortheProsser
andboththesubsequent
Virginia,
of 1800inRichmond,
conspiracy
of DenmarkVeseyandtherebellionofNat Turnerof
conspiracy
1831. In supportof this,Schwarz(1982) arguedin his Gabriel
article
ofthelateeighteenth-century
openslavesociety
thattherelatively
andskilledslaves.
assimilated,
mobile,
favored
Virginia
tidewater
oflaborskillsand
variety
neededa great
Virginians
Becausewhite
whodidnotseemalien,theyconworkers
desired
simultaneously
and
allowedtheassimilated
or else carelessly
sciouslygranted
of movement.
suchas freedom
privileges
slavesgreater
trained
(p.286)
Freehling(1986), in hisarticle,"DenmarkVesey'sPeculiarReality,"echoedSchwarzwhenhe wrotethat
Denmark
Vesey'sconspiracy,
preceding
immediately
intheperiod
dense,espetheir
especially
tended
totreat
patriarchs
Charleston
withspeblackpopulation
andespecially
domestic
ciallytalented,
exemplified
cial leniency.... Leadersof theVeseyconspiracy
thathischildren
thenthwarted....Enraged
aroused,
expectation
hehadachieved
everything
gambled
slaves,[Vesey]
wouldremain
(pp.28-29)
achievement.
hisposterity's
a system
blunting
todestroy
and/or
of scale (especiallyplantation
at enlargement
Attempts
both
forAfricanrevolutionaries,
regionalalliances)weredifficult
andintermediary
(restorationist)
in theso-calledtribalregression
revolts)phases.This was
(conspiraciesand/orabortive-stillborn
maroonswhen,in 1735,
the
Jamaican
evident,forexample,with
CudjoeoftheLeewardmaroonsrejectedan offerofalliancewith
1975,p. 33).
maroonsofNannyTown(Marthurin,
theWindward
coalitionsofAmerindiYetitis possibletotalkoflocallyinspired
and
creoleslaves,freedmen,
ofAfricans,
and/or
ans andAfricans
mulattoesin variouspartsof theAmericas.Such coalitionsoccuffedduringthe Stono Rebellionin South Carolinaof 1739
as the
slavesfromlocal andadjacentplantations
(whichrecruited
392
JOURNALOF BLACK STUDIES /MARCH 1996
southtowardFlorida),theNatTurner
rebelliousslavesprogressed
rebellionin Virginiaof 1831,andtheearlier1712 slaverebellion
ofrevoofscale as a phenomenon
inNew York.Butenlargement
Untilthattime,
19thcenturies.
lutionhadtoawaitthelate18th/early
creole
a maturing,
to nurture
processcontinued
theevolutionary
Africanleadershipthatgrewmoreand morepoliticallyself-asattuned
totherevoastute,andideologically
sured,diplomatically
oftheAge ofRevolution.
fervor
lutionary
slave
amongAfrican
maturity
An important
phaseofleadership
apof a moresophisticated
was thedevelopment
revolutionaries
to
indiplomacy
approach
This
innovative
proachto diplomacy.
negotiated
atenlargement
ofscalethrough
itiallyinvolvedattempts
ties
facilitated
bycrosscutting
movesatunityamongrestorationists,
andreligion
through
and,later,
race(withAmerindians),
ofethnicity,
classforcovetedconcessions.
withtheplanter
overtures
diplomatic
to cooritinitially
was difficult
In Mexico,forexample,although
groupsagainsttheSpandinatetheattacksofdispersedcimarron
between
nominalalliancesestablished
iards,therewereincipient,
Amerand,as alreadymentioned,
some cimarroncommunities
Thisbecame
indiansas well as enslavedAfricansand freedmen.
possiblein 1549 and againin 1579 neartheMexicantownsof
NuevaGaliciaandGuadalajara.Duringthosedates,Spanishoffiraids"by a
clandestine
cials recordeda seriesof "collaborative,
combinationof local cimarronesand the ChichimecsIndians
in 1608and 1618,
(Palmer,1976,p. 123).Duringthe17thcentury,
Don Luis de Velasco,
intheOrizabazoneofVeraCruz,a frustrated
Spanishviceroy,foughta seriesof guerrillawarswithOrizaba
oftheirking,Yanga,whowas of
undertheleadership
cimarrones
as
tobytheSpanishOrderofFranciscans
royalbloodandreferred
of several
"unhombrerazon."The outcomewas therecognition
beingtheestabconcessionsputforth
byYanga,one inparticular
lishmentof the cimarron"puebloof San Lorenzode Negros"
in
conspiracy
(pp. 126-127).Again,in 1608,an abortive-stillborn
werea coalition
MexicoCityrevealedthatsuspectedconspirators
as wellas slaves(p. 136).
offreeBlacksandmulattoes
In the Trombetasregionof Alcobaca in Amazoniaof 18thratherthanattempt
to deauthorities,
Brazil,Portuguese
century
Williams-Myers
/THESES OF GENOVESE AND OTHERS
393
stroya mocambo(cimarron
community
headedby thepowerful
"Negress,
FillippaMariaAranha,"),
electedtoformanalliancewith
herinstead(Bastide,1971,p. 197).A similarbutearlieroccurrence
tookplace in Spanish-controlled
Colombiain Cartagenade Indias
attheturnofthe17thcentury.
TheSpaniards,
rather
thancontinue
theenormous
expensetosuppress
"KingBenkos"(DomingoBioho)
andhispalanquerosofthepalenqueSan Basilio,undertheleadership of governorDon Diego Fernandezde Velasco,agreedto
concessionsfromKingBenkosin 1619(Rout,1976,p. 77). On the
islandofJamaica,
thisgrowing
indiplomacy
sophistication
culminatedin treatiesof peace betweentheBritishand theirmaroon
theBritish
theLeewardmaroonsofCudjo
protagonists;
recognized
andtheWindward
maroonsofMoore(Nanny)TownunderQuao
as independent
politieswithcertain
treaty
totheBritish
obligations
crownin 1739and 1740,respectively
(Craton,1982,pp. 81-92).
The transition
of theleadershipfrompredominantly
African
to creolewas completedby thelate 18thcentury
in mostof the
in NorthAmericahavingpecuAmericas,withsucha dichotomy
liaritiesofitsown.Cratonpinpoints
1780forJamaicabecauseby
thattimecreole slaves outnumbered
African-born
slaves. The
leadershipwas highlyskilled,elite,in positionsof leadershipon
theplantations,
acculturated,
steepedin theideologicalfervorof
theAge ofRevolution,
andpolitically
Thefindings
in
calculating.
onAntiguagaveeveryindication
the1735Tackeyconspiracy
ofa
of highlyskilledcreolesin suchrebellious
growinginvolvement
acts. Tackey'sconspiracyrecruited"Tomboy,a creole master... Scipio. .. describedas a 'waitingman'ordomestic
carpenter
. . . twodrivers:SecundiandJacko[and]fourotherskilledcraftsmen" (Craton,1982, pp. 121-124). The appearanceof these
of thingsto comebut
skilledcreolesnotonlywas an indication
itwouldbe almost
thefactthatbythemid-18thcentury
highlighted
On
transformation
of
the
completed. Jamaica,
leadership
reallygot
underwaybeforeCraton'sdateof 1780 becauseof theHanover
Parishslave plotof 1776,whichcoincidedwiththestartof the
Ontheisland,theplanters
inHanoverParish
Revolution.
American
"for
first
time
in thecolony's
wereconfronted,
unbelievably, the
history
[witha widespreadplotthat]involvedthecreoleeliteof
394
JOURNALOF BLACK STUDIES /MARCH 1996
and domestics,who neverbeforeengagedin
craftsmen,
drivers,
rebellions,and in whosefidelity[theplanters]had alwaysmost
relied"(p. 172).
firmly
point"
heraldedthe"turning
Thelastdecadeofthe18thcentury
cadretookup thechallenge
creoleleadership
in whicha visionary
Up tothat
intorevolution.
andrebellions
conspiracies
totransform
stillwithnumbers
creoleleadership,
thatgrowing
itis arguable
point,
itself
slavesintheinnercirclesofpower,prepared
ofAfrican-born
theAchilles'
retribution
sought
as itsactsofviolent
fortherevolution
notfardistant.
andan Africanfreedom
heelofimperialism
THE TURNINGPOINT:
THE REVOLUTIONIN HAITI
all thekeyingredients
WiththestartoftheHaitianRevolution,
wasthat
andforemost
First
wereinplace.
forrevolution
necessary
bycreolesand,inspite
circlewasdominated
by1791theleadership
slavesontheisland,theideology
ofAfrican-born
ofa largenumber
was preachedbyhighlyskilledslavesin
oftheAge ofRevolution
Withthecreole
on
positionsof leadership themanyplantations.
hadgivenwaytocrosscircle,ethnicity
intheleadership
Africans
whichinturncreateda basisbywhich
tiesofethnicunity,
cutting
ofresistance
strategem
anduniversal
tomovetoa moreinnovative
extraneous
and
intrinsic
The
scale.
of
by an enlargement
fostered
variableswerein play and keyto thesuccessof therevolution.
thepetiteandgrandblancs(Whites)werediametrically
Internally,
opposedto one anotherand couldnotagreeas to an appropriate
approachto the Black slave majorityand the mulattoproperty
and in additionto the counterrevolutionary
holders.Externally,
inHaiti,Francewas atwarin 1793withbothEnglandand
activity
to wrestcontrolof Haiti from
Spain, two enemiesdetermined
resolveof the
revolutionary
on
the
miscalculated
Francebutthat
gameto win
Africansto defeattheWhitesat theirown military
andself-determination.
theirfreedom
circle,alongwithBoukman(whosecounterpart
Intheleadership
in thefailedDenmarkVeseyplotof 1822 wouldbe GullahJack)
/THESES OF GENOVESE AND OTHERS
Williams-Myers
395
knownas Francois
Francois,Biassou,andToussaint,
wereJeannot,
DominiqueToussainta Breda.All werehighlyskilledcraftsmen
onHaiti.TheywereacculturWhiteplanters
toprominent
attached
atedcreolesbutweremenwhowereenslavedto others.The first
intobattleagainsttheFrench,
fourwouldleadthemassesinitially
Toussaint("Fatras
butitwouldbe thelatter,
Spanish,andBritish,
whowould
stick,
as hewasknowninhisyouth),
Baton,"orthrashing
emergeas thesupremeCommander.
strategy
withmilitary
and one fimiliar
A strictdisciplinarian
slave
Toussaint
createdfromanAfrican
hismanyreadings,
through
500,000(and a Whiteand mulatto
populationof approximately
armies
ofonly30,000each)oneofthemostformidable
population
in theAge of Revolution(Korngold,1964,p. ix). In theBritish
it is recalledthatthe"British
humiliation,
lion's unprecedented
andexcellently
equippedsoldiers[senttoHaiti]
20,000well-trained
Louverture"
defeated
(p. ix).And
hadbeendecisively
byToussaint
"His [Toussaint's]
armyamounts
in thewordsofa contemporary,
The
to55,000men,ofwhich30,000areofthelineanddisciplined.
army"(pp.ix-x).Withrespect
aremilitia-a formidable
remainder
it
tacticsusedso successfully
bytheHaitianarmy,
to theguerrilla
whofirst
brought
guerrilla
that"itwasToussaint
hasbeenremarked
historians
... [and]notonebefore
tothenoticeofmilitary
warfare
or formanyyearsto followwas to combinestrictdisciplineand
prowessamonghistroopsas didToussaint"
precisionwithathletic
1978,p. 51).
(Parkinson,
in
thepeculiarinstitution
WhenNapoleonmovedto reinstate
its
abolition
the
in Caribbean(after
HaitiandotherFrenchholdings
in 1794),thedie was cast(Palmer,1964,Vol.2, p. 514). Fromthe
thecrywentup: "la lutacontinua;
underToussaint,
revolutionaries
liberteou morte."Napoleon'smeteoricappearanceon theworld
wasequallymatched
indomitable
personality
stageas an apparently
fallfrompoweras a resultofhisdecreetoreinstate
byhismeteoric
slaveryintheFrenchcolonialempire.As he sata defeatedmanin
judgment
a Western
prison,he bemoanedthefactthathis better
in history.
" 'I havetoreproach
himat a crucialmoment
forsaked
myself,'moanedthefallenNapoleonBonapartewhenit was too
madeuponthecolony[Haiti]duringmy
late, 'withtheattempt
396
JOURNALOF BLACK STUDIES /MARCH 1996
I
itbyforcewas a greaterror.
The designofreducing
consulship.
themedium
itthrough
withgoverning
oughttohavebeensatisfied
1978,p. 153).
ofToussaint'" (Genovese,1979,pp.92-93;Parkinson,
thehistorical
legacyof
LikeNapoleon,theBritishhadtoconfront
theirdefeat,and Haitiwas thatlongblackshadowof defeatthat
As stated
correctly.
had to interpret
even the Britishhistorians
bytheBritishin SaintDominque
"The lossessuffered
elsewhere,
France:SirJohn
weakenedthemintheirwaragainstrevolutionary
observedthatthesecretof
historian,
a Britishmilitary
Fortescue,
'maybe saidto lie
Britian'sfailureto crushtheFrenchrevolution
"
L' Ouverture]'(Pieterse,1988,p. 5).
inthefatalwords,[Toussaint
hadallbeenfought
Whenallwassaidanddone,andwhenthebattles
and won(witha littlehelpfroma tropicalmosquito),theAge of
a Black childamong
offspring:
Revolutionhadproducedanother
the
birth
resounded
throughout
Whitesiblingsbutwhosetraumatic
ofthingsto come.The Western
harbinger
Americasas a dramatic
byitsfuture.
worldwas confronted
SLAVERY,REBELLION,AN1)
REVOLUTION:A CONCLUDINGASSESSMENT
"In theend,theAmericashad theirfirstblacknationalstate"
andon thathistorical
(Genovese,1979,p. xvii).Hemispherically,
ifthescenariois to holdup with
resistance,
ofAfrican
continuum
theevolutionary
processofrevolution,
respectto theevolutionary
all theconditions
processpeakedinHaitibecause,as statedearlier,
werein place.Witha slavepopulation
necessaryfora revolution
of500,000ormore,andwitha Whiteplanterclass of30,000,the
France'swarwithBritainand
ratiowas astounding.
Black/White
oftheWestern
Spain,anditspariahstatusamongothernation-states
And
ifwe areto
factors.
into
the
extraneous
play
brought
world,
believeGenovese'sand Craton'spositionsthatconspiraciesand
butalso
rebellionswerepossiblenotonlyin timesof prosperity
whenslavesweredrivenon looseortightchains,thenthefactthat
cameto Haitiin themidstofan economicbonanza
therevolution
(as thecolonywas themostprosperousin theFrenchempire)
/THESES OF GENOVESE AND OTHERS
Williams-Myers
397
highly
amongtheacculturated,
holdscredence.Risingexpectations
byso-calledWhite
thwarted
wereconstantly
skilledcreoleAfricans
whoguardedtheirprivilegesandhumanproperty
revolutionaries
withsucha blindpassionoffearthattheyactedas counterweights
down theirworldaroundthem.Above all else, the
in bringing
ideologywith
linkedtheirrevolutionary
Haitianrevolutionaries
from
the
made
transition
thus
and
thatof theAge of Revolution
itmustbe recalledthatwhatmakes
Further,
torevolution.
rebellion
fromother
inthisscenariois thatitis differentiated
Haitiso distinct
leadershipatregionsin theAmericasin thatits revolutionary
"tofashiona modemblackstate,a statethatdidnotturn
tempted
itsbackonworldsociety....Itsideologywasthebourgeois-democraticideologythatguidedtheAmericanandFrenchrevolutions"
stillenslavedthrough(Pieterse,1988,p.4). ForthemanyAfricans
"Haitiwas to the
as alludedto byothers,
outtheAmericasand/or
(p. 5).
Africandiaspora... a call ofawakening"
of
(theone who getsover,thethrasher
ToussaintL'Ouverture
worldso
was a namethatshooktheWestern
Whitenation-states)
intotheheartsof slaveand sentfearand trepidation
profoundly
trade
Thetrans-Atlantic
holdersandchangedthecourseofhistory.
as a resultoftherevolution;
endofficially
in slaveswouldshortly
theworld;in
throughout
cause was strengthened
theabolitionists'
crashing
came
of
empire
dream
a
French
thewakeoftherevolution,
in
and therevolutionaries,
downaroundthewould-beemperors;
meaning
whatbecamean Americamiredin itsowncontradictory
acquireda vasttractofWestandinalienablerights,
ofdemocracy
the
it
to
Pacific,butonlyafterithad"steamthatled
ernterritory
rolled"NativeAmericannationsinitspath(Pieterse,1988,p. 6).
hadcometofruition;
processoftherevolution
Theevolutionary
of
"ofa newnationalism
[a Black nationalism
it was a harbinger
in
point
turning
[a]
and freedom]representing
hope, humility,
consciousnessand politicalpractice"(Pieterse,1988,p. 5). The
itselfin the historical
had so entrenched
idea of therevolution
oppressedthatit madeand
consciousnessof theenslavedand/or
and
makespossiblesuchan idea in the 19thand 20thcenturies,
revolutionwere18th-century
forthosewhoseantecedents
beyond,
on thedayofhisdeporaries.As Toussaintstatedso prophetically
398
JOURNALOF BLACK STUDIES /MARCH 1996
tationfromthehomelandto France,andwhichis so aproposfor
me you have cutdownin
theentireAmericas,"In overthrowing
itwillspring
ofthetreeofliberty;
SaintDominqueonlythetrunk
up again fromtheroots,fortheyare manyand theyare deep"
1978,p. 189).
(Parkinson,
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