S O C IO C U L T U R A L A N D P O L I T IC A L V A L U E S
IN S E L E C T E D P L A Y S B Y
SO U T H
A F R IC A N
A n n e tte L.
P L A Y W R IG H T S *
Comb rin k
D ep artm en t of E n g lis h ,
PU fo r Cl Hi
A BSTRA CT
The
paper
deals
w ith
th e issu e of v a lu e s e x p re s s e d in S o u th
A fr ic a n
p la y s , and ta k e s a look at re p r e s e n ta tiv e p la y s from th e e n t ir e sp e ctru m
of S o u th A fr ic a n dram a - A fr ik a a n s , E n g lis h , B la c k dram a an d a lte r n a tiv e
T h e a tre .
Fo llo w in g a s u r v e y of th e f ie ld ,
d is cu ssio n s a re p ro v id e d o f
se le cte d p la y s in all th e se ctio n s.
It em erges th a t th e re
b o ard
is a f a ir amount of hom ogeneity rig h t a cro s s th e
in term s o f s o c io c u ltu ra l and p o litic a l v a lu e s .
T h ere
is
also
a
stro n g in s is te n c e on va lu e lin ked to B la c k c o n sc io u sn es s in th e p la y s b y
B la c k
p la y w r ig h ts , w h ich is im p o rtan t in v ie w o f th e fa c t th a t th e B la c k
p la y w r ig h ts often h a v e an o v e r tly d id a c tic and p r o p a g a n d is ts in te n tio n .
1.
INTKODUCT fON
So u th
A fr ic a n
v e r s ify .
dram a is multi -faceted and encom passes a v e r y w id e
c!i -
To r th a t reason
it is not ea sy to d eterm in e p re c is e ly w h a t it
is and how to ap p roach it.
In the in tro d u c to r y p h a s e , th e re fo re , a b rie f
o u tlin e w ill be g iv e n
of th e field c o v e re d b y
th e um brella term
’’S o u th
A fr ic a n d ra m a ".
In d ig e n o u s lite r a t u r e in South A fric a means lit e r a t u r e w ritte n in f n g lis h ,
A fr ik a a n s and a n y of th e n in e main v e r n a c u la r s of th e c o u n tr y as a w hole.
B e c a u s e th e o ra l tra d itio n
*
Tape n
V tt / u p I ,
/ lo a d
u i
Un i vo n a i it/
ih e .
n f
% IA
is still stro n g
In iv m
V// i n » * ,
a 1 i.o n a i
Hn iy h tu n ,
-233-
in some o f th e se v e r n a c u la r s ,
C a /.lo q t/ú m
_.Yi -2 *?
A t n / u -i i
<>rt L i t o . - n / f t i i r
1 (f R
.
a n d
and because the main a c t iv it y of B la c k
p la y w rig h ts
in p a r tic u la r is em ­
b odied in E n g lis h , dram a in th e v e r n a c u la r s w ill not bp in clu d ed fo r the
p u rp o s e s o f th is p a p e r.
1 he d evelop m en t of drama
t iv it ie s ,
and th is
has been p a r t ic u la r ly
A fr ik a a n s th e a tre ,
ve lo p ed
along
p a ra lle l
be
lin e s ,
7 ).
into
ac­
at
a
fo u r
B la c k
v a r y in g
main
pace"
A fr ic a
y e a rs .
E n g lis h
can,
c a te g o rie s ,
’’W h ite
th e a tre d e ­
(Stead m an and
for th e sake of
each
w ith
many
A fr ik a a n s dram a (W h ite , a lth o u g h some C o lo u red w rit e r s
dram a b y
in A f r ik a a n s ),
E n g lis h
dram a b y
W h ite s,
B la c k s and a fo u rth c a te g o ry c alle d b y Steadm an and
M a u p tfle is ch " A lte r n a t iv e t h e a t r e " :
b e rs of all th e ra c ia l and
E n g lis h ,
fo r th e p a st t h ir t y
th e a tre and
but
Adam Small h a v e w ritte n
E n g lis h
as m any o th e r c u ltu ra l
Dram a in So u th
d iv id e d
s u b - c a te g o rie s :
tru e
W h ite E n g lis h
M a u p tflo is c h , 1984,p .
con v e n ie n c e ,
lik e
in th is c o u n tr y ,
has been determ in ed to a la rg e e x te n t b y Ih e p o litical situ a tio n ,
a form of dram a c o n triv e d
lan g u a g e g ro u p s ,
th e se p ro d u c tio n s
u s u a lly con tain
b y mem­
fo r a lth o ugh p red o m in a n tly
a mix of s ty le s and of
la n ­
g u a g e.
F o r th e p u rp o ses of th is
p a p e r,
r e p r e s e n ta tiv e s
main c a te g o rie s w ill be d is c u s s e d .
d e g re e
of
hom ogeneity
w ith in
from each of th e
fo u r
It w ill em erge th a t th e re is a c e rta in
each g ro u p as to th e va lu e s e x p re s s e d ,
alth o u g h it is also s t r ik in g to note th at th e re is a m easure of hom ogeneity
r ig h t acro ss
the b o ard when
it comes to va lu e s co n c e rn e d w ith
human
d ig n ity
2.
A SÏJRVKY OK INK KIKI.I)
B e c a u s e of reaso ns rooted in c u ltu r a l n ationalism and the b ilin g u a l n a tu re
of th e c o u n tr y (in term s of the dom inant social g ro u p s ) A frik a a n s dram a
come to be e s ta b lis h e d as th e f ir s t in d ig en o u s th e a tric a l tra d itio n in the
c o u n tr y .
In th e single-m ind ed
d r iv e
to w ard s
an
A fr ik a n e r
id e n tity ,
c r e a t iv e a r t is t s in th e lit e r a r y fie ld p ro d u c e d a solid b o d y of w o rk .
E n g lis h - s p e a k in g
th em selves
by
people
going
to
had
in
the
c o u n tr y
p erfo rm an ces
g ro u p s ,
A fr ik a n e r s
to
fend
s a lu t a r y
e ffe c t on th e d evelop m en t
by
could
v is itin g
fo r th e m se lv e s,
of
an
co m fo rta b ly
th e a tric a l
and this
A fr ik a a n s
th e a tre
W h ile
e n te rta in
to u rin g
had a most
tra d itio n .
T h e e a rlie s t w o rk s w e re m o stly in the mould of social realism w ith a f a ir
-234-
s p rin k lin g of in te n s e ly p a trio tic arid n atio n a list them es.
on w ard s th e re w as a s ig n ific a n t ch a n g e :
Vrom the six tie s
in this p erio d some of th e best
w o rk s of th e A fr ik a a n s stag e came to be w ritte n and p ro d u ced in a p eriod
term ed "in tro s p e c tio n and re b e llio n ” (Stead m an and H aupt fle is c h , p. 11).
E v e r sin ce the late fiftie s A fr ik a a n s p la y w rig h ts h a v e ten d ed to be c ritic a l
of th e almost c h a u v in is t dram a p ro d u ced b y e a rly
is re fle c te d
(N .P .
in th e
reception
a cco rd ed p la y s
van W y k L o u w ), a p la y com missioned fo r the R e p u b lic D ay f e s t iv a l
in 19GG and then p u b lic ly c e n su re d b y
c re a t iv e
the
estran g em en t
b etw een
u n d e rlin e d b y
B a r th o S m it's 1*1«» Mnimcri.
Sm all,
p la y w r ig h t s , and th is
lik e Dio pluimsn.id w-ia i vor
K.mna by ko hystoo
a r t is t s
Prim e M in is te r.
and
g o ve rn m en t
P .G .
du
P le s s is
(lib e r a lly
in te r s p e rs e d w ith
(S o o r
E n g lis h :
c r e a s in g ly p o p u la r in a "b ilin g u a l" c o u n t r y ).
in
tho Suburbs)
p o litical
and
p la y
a form o f dram a in
1 he sin g le most im portant
ex p o n en t of this form of dram a is P ie te r D irk U y s
term in e th e slot into w h ich
Adam
A p a rt from a sp ate of
o th e rs , th is p erio d also saw the d a w n in g of th e sc a th in g
in A fr ik a a n s
f u r th e r
T h e s tu n n in g p la y b y
falls in th is c a te g o r y .
v e r y good " so cio d ram as" b y
T h e v ir t u a l
was
(il is not ea sy to d e ­
he has to fall - A fr ik a a n s o r E n g lis h ) , who
has c re a te d his own form of a lt e r n a t iv e th e a tre
in th a t he u s u a lly p e r ­
form s in all his own s a tire s , and has d evelo p e d a m yth ica l s a tiric a l com ­
m entator on the So u th
B e z u id e n h o u t,
A fr ic a n
p o litical
scen e
in
(h e
the am b assad ress from B a p e tik o s w e ti.
fig u re
of
E v ita
He has become, in
th e m iddle e ig h tie s , som ething of an in s titu tio n and has done a g re a t deal
to d ra g
social and p o litical s k e le to n s,
(a lth o u g h
e s p e c ia lly
those of the A fr ik a n e r
not e x c lu s iv e ly ) out of the c u p b o a rd .
Me makes vicio u s fun
of p eo p le's a d h e re n c e to o u td a te d norms and v a lu e s ,
su c ce ss can
a ttitu d e s in the c o u n tr y .
h o w e v e r,
and his c o n tin u in g
in p a r t be seen as a b aro m ete r of ch a n g es in so cio p o litical
fo r
his
He has been c ritic iz e d
re te n tio n
b y M sh cngu
of n in e te e n th - c e n tu ry form :
(1 9 7 7 :5 ),
"tJy s
is not
p re p a re d to lib e r a te him self y e t, and the form of (G o d 's F o rg o tte n ) shows
"E n g lis h d ra m a ” sh o u ld , s t r ic t ly sp e a k in g ,
in c lu d e B la c k and A lt e r n a t iv e
th e a tre , b u t for’ c o n v e n ie n c e th e term w ill be used to in c lu d e the a c tiv itie s
of E n g lis h sp e a k in g W hite So u th A fr ic a n s .
s ix tie s ,
not
re a lly
p ro d u c ed
much
T h is th e a tre h ad ,
of
real
v a lu e ,
up to the
b ecau se
th e
E n g lis h sp e ak in g a u d ien ces rem ained c u lt u r a lly b ound to p ro d u c tio n s im­
p o rte d from "h o m e ".
P a r t of th e v e r y
235-
real c o n trib u tio n
of th e E n g lis h
th e a tre
in th is c o u n tr y
lias been
t h e ir c re a tio n
of an in f r a s t r u c t u r e
in
the sense of the b u ild in g of th e a tre s and th e em ergence of some le g e n d a ry
p ro d u c e rs and d ir e c to rs
W e stern
tie s ,
th e a tre
who
in th e c o u n tr y .
sin ce S h a r p e v ille and
So u th
A fr ic a n
E n g lis h
in th is c a te g o ry
s e rv e d
to
e s ta b lish
g re a t
of
the
( I t has o n ly re a lly been sincp the s ix ­
the b o y co tt of th e
B r it is h
dram a has come into its o w n .)
in c lu d e S te p h e n
w o rk s
p la y w rig h ts
that
V e r y e a r ly w o rk s
R la c k ’s f,ove and tlm Hyphen,
a s a tire ,
the dom estic comedies of B e r t h e G o u d v is , and Le w is So w d en ’s e a r ly p o l­
itica l p la y s
H a rle y M anson, a p ro lific w r it e r of the s ix tie s , was s h ifte d
on to a s id e lin e in c ritic is m , because at the time w hen he was most a c tiv e ,
c rit ic a l
in te r e s t
in
So u th
A fr ic a
s h ifte d
so cio p o litical in s is te n c e on " r e l e v a n c e " .
th e g re a te s t
w ith
o th e r
liv in g
S o u th
"co m m itted "
A fr ic a n
w r it e r s
to
p la y w r ig h t,
su ch
"commit ted n e ss "
and
a
This a ttitu d e has g re a tly aided
as
Ian
A thol
F u g a rd .
F e rg u s o n ,
T o g e th e r
Ste p h e n
G ra y ,
B a r n e y Simon an d Pau l S la b o le p s z y he has come to c a r v e a d eep n ich e
in So u th A fr ic a n d ram a, and has set an in e v ita b le c o u rs e fo r th is dram a
on w h ich it is s till fir m ly p la c e d ,
w rig h t
lik e G e ra ld in e
c o n d itio n .
K ra m e r
It is tru e ,
(B e e M ,
linker] w ith
s e lf
p erh ap s of a p la y ­
is committed o n ly to the human
h o w e v e r, as a s s e rte d b y th e p o p u la r s in g e r D a vid
24 J u l y
p o litic s .
to th e d e trim e n t,
A ron w h ose w o rk
1985) th a t
This
" c u lt u r e
has d ev elo p e d
in So u th
F u g a rd is re g a rd e d as b ein g com mitted in
w ord th a t
A fr ic a
is
c lo se ly
to a s o rt of emhrnoinj» o f the.
the sense of the
he u ses th e complex anom alies of th e So u th A fr ic a n situ a tio n
in oi*der to illu s tr a t e and d is c u s s the re a litie s of th e human con d itio n hero
and everyw h ere.
" B la c k th e a tre " w ill be taken to mean, fo r th e p u rp o ses
of th is d is c u s s io n ,
dram a p ro d u c e d
th e p a r tic u la r u p s u rg e of
by
B la c k
w r it e r s
and b elo n g in g
to
B la c k dram a in the s e v e n tie s - as p a rt of the
new p o litic a l c o n sc io u sn es s of the B la c k
g ro u p s
in th e c o u n tr y .
"B e ­
g in n in g in the 1030 s w ith a d e s ire to c re a te th e a tre re le v a n t to th e live s
and
needs of B la c k
peo p le,
th is
w h e re so cio p o litica l and c u ltu ra l
'T h e a tr e o f B la c k
th e a tre a r r iv e s
in the 1970s at a poin t
n ationalism c o n v e rg e
and
p ro d u c e
th e
C o n s c io u s n e s s '" 1 (Stea d m a n and H a u p tfle is c h , p . 141).
" B la c k co n scio u sn ess can be seen as a p o litical c u ltu r e em anating from
th e B la c k W hite p o la riz a tio n
th e e th n ic bo nd s and
in So u th
lo y a litie s of
236 -
A fr ic a w h ich
the u rb a n
docs not re p la ce
B la c k s ,
seeing
th a t it
The c o n c ep t of B la c k con scio u sn ess is a c r u c ia lly im p ortant one in B la c k
drama
(a s ev id e n c e d
by
moans th at d e s c rib in g
the w o rd s of an em inent B la c k w r i t e r 7 ) ,
the th e a tre in this w a y
is not m e rely a
lin k in g a con cep t of th e a tre to a co n cep t of p ig m en tation :
is th e a tre w h ich deals w ith
of
" r a t h e r , B la c k
ú le n t i f i o s w ith n sot o f vn1m»s.
t h e a tre can be seen to be th e a tre w h ich
It
and it
w ay
th e liv e s ,
th e needs and th e a sp ira tio n s
of th e m a jo rity of S o u th A fr ic a n s , and w h ich trie s to in s til a c o n sc io u s­
n ess
in
it 4! au d ien ce
Ila u p t fle is c h ,
p.
of
w h at
it
means
to be
B la c k "
(Stea d m a n and
140).
T h e e a r ly w o rk s of a p la y w rig h t su ch as G ib son K e n tc a re v e r y im p ortant
in th e lin e of d evelopm ent of B la c k d ram a.
A lth o u g h his w o rk is d iffe r e n t
from the w o rk s of la te r m ilitan ts in th e field
Lew is
Nkosi and
Bo n g e n i Ngema,
such
as M aishe M ap on ya,
it is ex trem ely im p o rtan t in th e sense
th a t it a c c u ra te ly re fle c te d th e v ic is s itu d e s of life in the to w n s h ip s.
w ork
was im m ensely p o p u la r and laid th e
B la c k
th e a tre ,
e s p e c ia lly
when
more
fo u n d a tio n s
r e s t r ic t iv e
fo r
His
in d e p e n d e n t
leg islatio n
fo rce d
in ­
c re a s in g se g reg a tio n of th e a tre a u d ie n c e s.
B la c k con scio u sn ess is th e re fo re seen as th e most in s is te n t set of valu e s
in fo rm in g th e in c re a s in g ly m ilitant and v ig o ro u s
A fr ic a .
is
B la c k
th e a tre in So u th
Its aim is seen as b ein g an attem pt to im ito B la c k people.
also a p p a re n t in th e reason
fra n c a of this th e a tre ,
fo r th e ch o ice of E n g lis h
once again e x p re s s e d b y
as th e
Sip h o Sepam la,
T h is
lin g u a
"
...
is a p o litical id e n tity w h ich seeks to tra n s c e n d d iffe re n c e s in c u ltu ra l
id e n tity so that p o litical m an ip u latio n on the b a sis of c u ltu r a l d if f e r ­
ences can be f r u s t r a t e d " (V a n N ie k e r k ,
2
1934,
p. 3 3 ).
S ip h o Sepamla has also g iv e n vo ice to th is co n cep t.
u rb a n B la c k ,
He re fe rs to the
the aud ien ce of B la c k th e a tre , as "a p erso n who h o ars
a B la c k mind th a t has almost boon sa tu ra te d w ith w h ite va lu e s to the
e x te n t th a t it has become a w h ite m ind.
We th in k th is has come about
la r g e ly as a re su lt of w o rd s and su g g es tio n s pu t into th e B la c k m ind.
We b e lie v e th a t th e B la c k mind has gone to sleep and
it is fo r th is
reason we a re u sin g th e con cep t of B la c k co n scio u sn ess to re-aw aken
it "
(19, p.
17).
(S e e also Stead m an ,
237
1981, p . 2 ).
fiow does th is cho ice of lan g u a g e re co n cile its e lf with B la c k c o n scio u sn ess?
Fo r
th e
fo reseea b le
fu tu re
su sp icio u s of th in g s t r ib a l,
and
the fa c t th a t tlie to w n sh ip people a re
I th in k E n g lis h will be o u r lan g u a g e.
o u s ly , we a re doin g th in g s to it.
O b v i­
We a re t r y in g to make it o u r E n g lis h
- w ith o u t a p olo g ies, b y the w a y ” (19, p .
19).
A lte r n a t iv e th e a tre in So u th A fr ic a is a re c e n t and most vig o ro u s offshoot
of th e a tric a l a c t iv it y ,
ve ry
v a rie d
and
and it has come into b ein g p re c is e ly b ecause of the
multi fa ce te d
n a tu re
of
th e so c ie ty of this c o u n tr y .
M o stly it in v o lv e s c h a ra c te rs from all c o n c e iv a b le g ro u p s in the c o u n tr y ,
and it also u tiliz es nil the v a rie tie s of
s u b - c u ltu re s
in th e c o u n tr y .
ris e to th is
lan gu age a v a ila b le
to
th e
many
O ne of the most im p o rtan t fo rces g iv in g
has been d e s crib e d
as th e y e a r
1976, w hen
“ the
dom inant
system of norms and va lu e s in So u th A fr ic a n so c ie ty was sh aken b y the
p o litical e v e n ts of Ju n e 1976" (Stea d m a n and H a u p tfle is c h , 1984, p .
A lt e r n a t iv e
th e a tre is seen to h a v e alig n ed
te n d en cies in So u th A fr ic a n c u ltu r e .
th e a tre and dram a stu d ie s
its e lf a g a in s t
th e
166).
dom inant
It is commonly felt in So u th A fric a n
th at th e W e ste rn tra d itio n w h ich has been so
firm ly fix e d does not h a v e th e sole rig h t to e x is te n c e in term s of t h e a t ­
rica l
h is to r y
e v o lv e
in
this c o u n tr y .
from dom inant v a lu e s ,
B e c a u s e tra d itio n s a re seen la r g e ly
a lte r n a tiv e s to those v a lu e s w ill
h av e
to
to
a ris e an d be c o n s id e re d , and this is p re c is e ly w h at is h ap p en in g in both
B la c k
th e a tre and in A lt e r n a t iv e th e a tre ,
fo r it is felt th a t the dom inant
c u l t u r e 1 has e n s h rin e d the va lu e s of W e stern tra d itio n s in lit e r a t u r e , a rt
and th e a tre , and u n iv e rs a liz e d th ese as s ta n d a rd s of judgm ent (a lth o u g h
in all h o n e sty dram a in th is c o u n tr y w ould seein to p re s e n t a f a ir ly h o ­
m ogeneous face in the re p re s e n ta tio n of va lu e s
e n tie s and e ig h tie s ).
W h ite and C o u z en s,
sta n d
1984, p.
a g a in st e s ta b lis h e d
138) as "th e a t r e w h ich
" In
and
So u th
re sp o n se.
A fr ic a ,
(in
ta k e s a conscious
norms and is d e d ica te d to p re s e n tin g c r e a t iv e
a lte r n a tiv e s to social s t r u c t u r e s w h ich
b e h a v io u r
- e s p e c ia lly in th e s e v ­
A lt e r n a t iv e th e a tre is d e s c rib e d b y Steadm an
d eterm in e e s ta b lish e d p a tte rn s of
A lt e r n a t iv e
th e a tre
th u s
o ffe rs
a c u ltu ra l
b ecau se of tfie n a tu re of th e p o litical and
social
s t r u c t u r e in the last few d e c a d e s, the dom inant c u ltu r e has been th at
of
W h ites "
(Stead m an and H a u p tfle is c h , p .
-
238-
170).
p o rte s t d e fin e d b y p o litic a l and idealo gical f a c to rs ” ,
H. Dhlomo, an p a rly
d ra m a tist in th is t h e a tr e , "w as in te re s te d in n atio nal h is t o iy an d va lu e s
as re fle c te d in the A fr ic a n tra d itio n .
B u t h e was m ore in te re s te d in th e
re la tio n sh ip s of th e se to th e m odern u rb a n A fr ic a n " (Ste a d m a n ,
and C o iiz e n s,
p.
H O ).
in W h ile
(T h is is o f im p o rtan ce fo r b oth “ B la c k t h e a tie ”
and " A lt e r n a t iv e t h e a t r e " . )
3.
3 .1
DISCUSSION OF I'l.AYS
The A f r i k a a n s
l.h e n trn
In th is c a te g o r y , p la y s b y B a r lh o Sm it and Adam Sm all wil be d is c u s s e d .
T h e A fr ik a a n s p la y w r ig h t B a r th o Sm it has become e n s h rin e d as p o ssib ly
the b e s t p la y w rig h t w o rk in g in th is fie ld , alth o u g h h is re la tio n s h ip w ith
the p o w e rs - th a t- b e has a lw a y s been
somewhat p re c a rio u s .
Mis w o rk is
o p e n ly c rit ic a l of m any social and p o litic a l in s titu tio n s , and fo»‘ th is reason
he has not escap ed c e n s u re .
lig h te n e d
Me b elo ngs
to th e ra n k s of th e more e n ­
A fr ik a a n s p la y w rig h ts of th e last q u a r t e r c e n t u r y ,
wli^n
th e
w o rk s of th e se p la y w rig h ts b egan to p a ra lle l tho se o f t h e ir F n g lis h and
B la c k
c o u n te rp a rts
sta te of a ffa irs .
in b ein g h ig h ly and v o c a lly c r it ic a l of th e
e x is tin g
Sm it is a v e r y su b tle and s o p h istica te d at l is t , and he
fin d s im a g in a tive a lle g o ric a l p a ra lle ls
in some of h is p la y s b y means
w h ich to q u estio n p re v a ilin g p o litic a l v a lu e s .
of
In C lir i s i in o , a p la y w h ich
he him self tra n s la te d into fín g lish and w h ich is commonly re g a rd e d as his
best p la y , lie deals w ith p re ju d ic e and g u ilt and b e tra y a l in term s of Nazi
G e rm a n y ,
but
w ith
A fr ic a n s itu a tio n .
clo se
an d
u nrnistaken ab le
re fe re n c e
to
th e So u th
He c r it ic a lly exam ines a ttitu d e s to w a rd s ra c ia l supe
r io r it y , to w a rd s some e n tre n c h e d assum ptions of C a lv in is m and h is c r i t i ­
cism is h a rsh
and s c a th in g .
The same c r it ic a l a ttitu d e is m anifest to a
much la r g e r ex ten t in The Mnimtvl, a p la y d e a lin g in e x p lic it and a g o n isin g
d eta il w ith th e d e s tr u c tiv e e ffe c ts of a p a rth e id on hum an re la tio n s h ip s ,
on th e d eh u m a n isin g e ffe c ts e n tre n c h e d p o litic a l va lu e s can h a v e on h u ­
m a n ity .
The impact of th e w o rk is p e rh a p s much more stu n n in g b eca u se
of th e p re c is io n and c o n tro l of the w ritin g - his w o rk lack s the d id a c tic
elem ent th at is an in e v ita b le concom itant of th e w o rk of the B la c k
"co m m itted " w r it e r s d e a lin g w ith th e same s u b je c t.
th a t he ev o k es in th e irre v o c a b le c la sh
239
and
The sense of h o rro r
b etw een human va lu e s and eti
tre n c h e d
and bigoted p o litic a l va lu e s
p e r v a s iv e
d re a d
as
th a t
inform s
in fo rm in g a G re e k
th e
p la y
w ith
tr a g e d y .
th e
same
O ne knows th e
e n d in g to be e q u a lly u n a vo id a b le .
Adam Sm all is " te c h n ic a lly " a C o lo u re d , bu t he w rite s in A fr ik a a n s , w hich
is the home lan g u a g e of th e
la r g e r p o rtio n of th e people so c la s s ifie d .
In his c o llo q u ia lly named p la y Knmm hy kó hysto e (K a n n a is coming h o m e!)
he deals in a s e a r in g ly iro n ic fash io n w ith th e tra d itio n a l vie w s of relig io n
an d th e s o lid ly c o n s e rv a tiv e v a lu e s of fam ily and
p ro p r ia t e ly enough an adopted so n ,
and
in te lle c tu a l)
u n d e r w h ich
s o c ie ty .
rise s ab o ve the
his fa m ily liv e s ,
re tu rn home fo r the fu n e ra l of the m a tria rc h
Kanna, ap­
re s tric tio n s
and goes
M a k ie t.
(so cial
into e x ile ,
to
T h e p ro d ig a l son
re tu r n s as a w e a lth y and su c ce ssfu l man, d e e p ly asham ed of his too a cu te
visio n
when
he is co n fro n te d w ith
re tu rn f u l l y .
an
his fam ily a g a in ,
T h e re is n e v e r a n y o v e rt c ritic is m ,
e n t ir e com m unity deh u m anised
a f te r su b je ctio n
(y e t
still
and y e t u n a b le to
y e t in th e p ic tu re of
hum bly p ra is in g G o d ,
to su ch c a ta cly sm ic e v e n ts
w ith in
th e
fam ily
as
even
ra p e ,
su icid e and m u rd e r) one is c o n fro n te d b y an in d ictm e n t too fie rc e to be
ig n o re d .
Sm all re v e a ls in no u n c e rta in term s also an im p licit ind ictm ent
that all p a rtie s
s h a re c o m p licity ,
one g ro u p th ro u g h dom ination and the
o th e r th ro u g h su b m issio n , a sub m ission e x p re s s e d in term s o f a cc ep ta n c e
of tra d itio n a l re lig io u s va lu e s and norm s.
3.2
K u g lis li Llio/itro
1 his c a te g o r y
w ill in clu d e d is cu ssio n s of p la y s b y A th o l
F u g a rd ,
w ith
b r ie f re fe re n c e to P ie te r- D irk U y s .
F u g a rd
needs no in tro d u c tio n .
Me has in
y e a r s become the most notable p la y w r ig h t
So u th
A fr ic a n
so c ie ty and
the sp ace of th e last tw e n ty
in S o u th
re a litie s at all le v e ls .
A fr ic a ,
d e a lin g w ith
Mis e a r lie r w o rk ( i n ­
c lu d in g th e fam ily p la y s ) d id not y e t h ave th e a b r a s iv e ly c r it ic a l q u a lity
of the la t e r ,
d is c u s s io n ,
more p o litic a lly
in s p ire d
p la y s .
F o r th e p u rp o s es of this
a selectio n will be made from his w o rk ,
th e more re c e n t p la y s .
F u g a rd s su b je ct
w ith
th e s t re s s on
has almost a lw a y s
been
man
c a u g h t up in the in v id io u s s t r u c t u r e s th at make up So u th A fr ic a n so c ie ty .
-240
In
his most o v e r t ly p o litical p la y s ,
doad and St n Lrn n nts,
su ch as The
Is la n d ,
Sizwn Hanzi
is
he d e c rie s the loss of p erso n a l and hum ane va lu e s
u n d e r th e h e a v y hand of an inhum an p o litic a l m achine.
G r a d u a lly ,
h o w e v e r,
in
the la te r p la y s ,
th e re
has been an in c re a s in g
g ro w th to w ard s a g i e a te r co m p le x ity, a f u lle r ex p loration of th e nuances
of e x p re ssio n w ith in this so c ie ty , a n d ,
to my m in d,
a more sym p a th e tic
re n d e rin g of v a lu e s h eld d e a r b y th e v a rio u s g ro u p s.
T h e o v e r tly c ritic a l
a ttitu d e , th e h a r s h ly uncom prom ising s ta n d ,
made room fo r a s u b tle r e x p re s s io n ,
w h ich
th e raw c r y
- th ese
is no less e ffe c tiv e
h av e
fo r
its
P ie t,
an
m u te d n e s s .
In
A Tins son
from
M o rs
he
looks
A fr ik a n e r fa rm e r ex iled to th e c it y ,
f r ie n d .
at
the in te ra c tio n
his
E n g lis h
b etw een
w ife an d
his
C o lo u re d
Piet ex em p lifies tra d itio n a l A fr ik a n e r c u ltu ra l v a lu e s , p o ig n a n tly
e x p re s s e d in term s of his com m ittedness to th e co n cep t of name an d lan d ,
th e fam ily farm .
P ie t's loss of the farm to d ro u g h t (t h e p r e v a ilin g sym bol
in the p la y , made v is ib le in th e co llectio n of aloes, c a c ti w h ich can s u r ­
v iv e e v e n g re a t d ro u g h t) makes him all th e more v u ln e ra b le to a th re a t
to
his
nam e,
th ese w o rd s :
and
F u g a rd p re s e n ts
th is sy m p a th e tic a lly ,
g iv in g
" T h e r e 's n o th in g you can do to sto p a d ro u g h t,
to P ie t
b u t bad
law s and social in ju s tic e a re man-made an d can b e unm ade b y men.
as sim ple as th a t.
We can make th is a b e tte r w o rld to liv e in " (p .
I t ’s
3J>).
F u g a rd sees th e co m p lexity of the system as a c la sh o f va lu e s w h ic h can
y e t be am e lio ra te d .
This is sta te d m uch m ore c le a r ly in th e la t e r M aster
H arold and (ho Boys, w ith a f u r t h e r re tre a t in to the s r lf in th e most re c e n t
Road t o Moot;a.
In M aster H arold and t ho Hoys, w hich is a f r a n k ly
f u g a rd d eals w ith com passion and w r y
tre n c h e d v a lu e s in a situ a tio n
fra u g h t
a u to b io g ra p h ic a l p la y ,
aw a ren ess w ith
w ith
ten sion
th*» is s u e of e n ­
- and th e s itu a tio n
is d e fu se d an d re s o lv e d o n ly in term s o f th e la r g e r encom passing concept
of
th e golden
ru le ,
of lo ve tra n s c e n d in g b a r r ie r s ,
and of t r u s t.
t h is
seems in c r e a s in g ly to b e the m essage in F u g a r d ’s la te r p la y s , a n d to my
m ind th e p la y s h a v e g a in e d g r e a t ly b y th is dim ension in w hich h e looks
at
d iffe re n c e s
u n a fra id and re s o lv e s thom d ra m a tic a lly not in term s of
m ilita n c y b u t h u m a n ity .
In Rnnd to tW;on h e d eals m ostly again w ith tr u s t
betw een peo p le, and in a vein sim ila r to Adam Sm a ll,
-2d I -
alm ost,
he rejet.ts
th e co m fortin g b lit d e a d en in g e ffe c t , as he sees it , of tra d itio n a l re lig io n .
He p re s e n ts a s y m p a th e tic p ic tu re of the A fr ik a a n s m in iste r, and y e t one
u n m is ta k e a b ly
g a in s
em bedded
a
in
th e
set
im pression
of
that
e n tre n c h e d
he is su sp icio u s of goodness
and
p re ju d ic ia l
va lu e s
rooted
u n q u e s tio n iiig Iy in tra d itio n , and an in v id io u s one at th a t.
A s a lre a d y
p o in ted o u t,
a tr ic a l a c t iv it y
s a t ir is t ,
a tta ck
Uys
re p re s e n ts a fre s h s a tiric a l b ree ze in t h e ­
in th e c o u n tr y .
not a ccep ted
A lth o u g h ,
b y m an y,
his w o rk
on social ab uses a va ila b le
His w o rk ,
to
w h ile u n e ven in q u a lit y ,
th e
in the b est tra d itio n of th e
re p re s e n ts
gen e ra l
the most s c a th in g
th e a tre - g o in g
r a r y p o litic a l iss u e s , d e b u n k s m any of the e n tre n c h e d va lu e s
b y both A fr ik a a n s and E n g lis h - s p e a k e rs in the c o u n tr y .
p la y ííod1s F o rg o tten
he p re s e n ts
p u b lic .
and h e a v ily d ep en d en t on contem po­
an a p o c a ly p tic
h eld d ea r
In th e s tr ik in g
fu tu re visio n of So u th
A fr ic a as an em battled
last b a stio n ,
fun of th e
v ie w held b y some A fr ik a n e r s of h a v in g somehow
(ou tm oded )
been the e le c t of G o d ,
a view
an d in th is p la y
in s p ire d
by
he makes
some r ig id ly
held
v icio u s
te n e n ts of
tra d itio n a l ( A f r ik a n e r ) C a lv in is m .
3 . 3 Black thoat.ro
‘B la c k
th e a tre ,
th e n ,
b ased on e t h n ic it y .
notions of
is more than a g e n re ,
a movement o r a p o s tu re
The label (f o r su ch it is ) e x p re sse s more im p ortant
i d e n t i f ic a t i o n w ith a «et; o f v a lu e s .
T h ese va lu e s fa ll
under
th e r u b r ic of the B la c k C o n s cio u s n e ss m ovem ent, and th e y d e fin e an a t ­
titu d e
so c ie ty .
to
th e
n a tu re and
Most B la c k
fu n ctio n of p erfo rm an ce in S o u th e rn
th e a tre ,
as the term is u n d e rsto o d b y
A fr ic a n
its p ra c ti
tio n e rs in So u th A fr ic a , is re a lly p ro le ta ria n th e a tre w h ich d ed ica tes its e lf
to th e d ep ictio n of life liv e d as a B la c k man:
has to do w ith p o litic s and id e o lo g y "
and in So u th A fr ic a ,
(S te a d m a n ,
that
1981, p . 2 ).
T h is p osition is even more e x p lic it ly sta te d b y M sh en gu (197/, p. 5) when
he c h a lle n g e s the idea th a t the va lu e s of th e old communalism sh o uld be
re c o n s titu te d
B la c k ).
in
the
life
of
the
in d iv id u a l
He m aintains th a t th e re is a "n e e d
communalism
th ro u g h
s o c ia l
B la c k C o n s cio u s n e ss is a b o u t.
(a n d
e s p e c ia lly
re o r g a n iz a tio n ",
T o a c h ie v e th is
w h ich
is
p u rp o s e ,
p re c is e ly w h at
the th e a tre is
used u n a sh a m e d ly as a weapon - M shengu m aintains (p . 7) th at
-242-
the u rb an
to p ro g re s s tow ard s a new
'w e must
use th e a tre b eca u se we know th at th e a tre can d o th e job b e tte r th a n a
t ra c t.
T h ea tre is an irre p la c e a b le weapon in th e a rm o u ry of a so cie ty
that is s tru g g lin g
to a c h ie v e fo r its people a m e anin gfu l life . . .
T h ir d
w o rld th e a tre m ust be im a g in a tive and s e n s u a l, in te lle c tu a l and polemical
but; its m eaning and its fu n ctio n must be rig o ro u s ly u n e q u iv o c a l''.
is
co n scio u s
re fu s a l,
also,
in
u rb an
B la c k
th e a tre ,
to
1 hero
se arch
fo r
an th ro p o lo g ica l " r o o t s " - e th n ic p aro ch ialism is seen as an in stru m e n t of
m anipulation and o p p re ss io n .
T h ese
a ttitu d e s
c u s s io n :
A fr ic a n ,
a re
c le a r ly e x p re sse d in the p la y s m entioned fo r d is ­
Fatim a D ik e 's The
S a c r if ic e
of
K ro l i
an d M aishe M a p o n y a s The Him^iy Kart h .
p la ys is in p a rt d ic ta te d that te x ts a re
re a d ily
and
The
l-’irsl.
Soul lr
(T h e cho ice of those
a va ila b le
- much in the
fie ld of B la c k and A lt e r n a t iv e th e a tre is im p ro vised and c o n tin g e n t to sa y
th e l e a s t . )
D ike looks at the tra d itio n a l co n cep ts and norms of the Xhosa n ation in
her
r itu a lis t ic
e n c ro a c h in g
n ess.
clash
p la y
W estern
on
K r e li.
c iv iliz a tio n
The
clash
b etw een
tra d itio n
1 he y a w n in g chasm is v e r y a p p a re n t in th is p la y .
b etw een tra d itio n a l va lu e s
and
an
is d ep icted w ith p o ig n a n c y and b it t e r ­
(e x e m p lified
in
th e
S h e tak e s th is
a d h e re n c e
of
th e
B la c k s to t h e ir in itia tio n of b o ys into m anhood) a ste p f u r t h e r in The F i r s t
South A f r ic a n , w h e re th e "W h ite " c h ild of a B la c k m o th er is su b je cted to
all
th e s te re o ty p e d
situ a tio n s .
Mis v io le n t re je ctio n ol tra d itio n a l B la c k
r e s t r a in s !? also makes him fall foul of the re ig n in g "W h ite ”
system ,
and
his iso la tio n , a r e c u r r e n t theme in So u th A fr ic a n dram a, is com plete.
M ap on ya, in sim ila r v e in to M anaka (K g o lf ) u ses the situ a tio n on the mines
as a m icrocosm of soniaI life in th e c o u n tr y .
up as fo llo w s:
Steadm an
has summed
M ining fe a tu re s p ro m in e n tly in co n te m p o ra ry B la c k
it
the-
at re b eca u se it exem p lifies th e w a y s in w h ich u rb an in d u s tria l life d is lo ­
cates tlie va lu e s and a sp ira tio n s of the m igran t w o rk e r a n d , on a d iffe r e n t
le ve l,
s ig n ifie s
(1981, p.
/ ).
th e ex p lo itatio n of the in d iv id u a l b y
social s t r u c t u r e s "
O ne co u ld sum up th is c lash at th e sim plest level b y
the
vie w of the o r d in a r y B la c k th a t it is a m atter of a c lash between th e haves
(t h e W h ite s )
and th e havo-not.s (t h e B la c k s ) .
is a sim ple visio n of W e stern c u ltu r e ,
w ith m aterial goods.
T h is
In most in sta n ce s
b ased m ostly on
is most elo q u e n tly e x p re sse d
2'13-
an
th e re
invo lve m en t
in the tit le of
the latest sensation in the M a rk e t
is
c alled
Asiniirnnli
(1985, p.
T h e a tre in Jo h a n n e s b u r g ,
the c re a to r of Woza A lb e r t !
M bongeni Mgema,
(We
have
110
12G) has m aintain ed
m on^y!).
w ritte n
(s e e n ex t s e c tio n ):
So cio lo g ist J , S .
th a t fo r most B la c k s
by
the p la y
O o sthu izen
tra d itio n a l
M arxism
is a t t r a c t iv e because of the a ttitu d e to w ard s m aterial goods e x p re s s e d in
it,
and b eca u se it ap peals
to t h e ir tra d itio n a l communal ism,
not a so lution in a n y w a y ,
as th e B la c k s
b u t th is is
h a v e re je cte d both
C ap italism
and S o cialism in t h e ir se arch fo r a re le v a n t s y n th e s is in so c io c u ltu ra l and
p o litic a l life,
A lte rn a tiv e
3 .4
To
a
ve ry
L im n I re
la rg e
e x te n t,
B la c k
co n c ep t A lt e r n a t iv e tlm at.ro.
th e a tre can n o t be se p a ra te d
I'om aselli (1981, p .
th e a tre m ust be . . . co n c e p tu a liz e d as a lt e r n a tiv e th e a tre
re s is ts a co n ten t d eterm in ed
b y c a p ita l,
of c ap ita l an d th a t is c o n tro lle d
use
of s ig n s ,
co n clu d es
b y c a p ita l.
his
in o p po sitio n
a r tic le
w ith
th e
re d is c o v e re d
T h e sem iotic com ponents and t h e ir relatio n
to b o u rg eo is
statem ent
w o rk in g c la ss th e a tre and has tak e n
th at
froms
of
" A lte r n a tiv e
t h e a tr e ’ b ack
to its
to th e in ­
t h e a tr e ".
He
th e a tre
ro o ts:
is
it has
th e o rig in s of th e a tric a l h e rita g e ; its v e r y c r u d it y has r e ­
in te g ra te d th e a tre w ith life ..
"(p .
3 2 ).
Most of th e p re- o cc u p a tio n s and em phases of B la c k
A lt e r n a t iv e
for it s tro n g ly
th a t is su b je ct to th e in te re s t
p ro d u c tio n of in t e r p r e t a n t s
t e r p r e te r all sta n d
from the
31) feels th a t " w o rk e r
th e a tre :
the d iffe r e n c e lie s ,
p e rh a p s ,
th e a tre
em erge
in
in th e fact th a t A l ­
t e rn a tiv e th e a tre m o stly p re s u p p o se s c o lla b o ra tiv e e ffo r t s , as Wozn A lb e rt
was a co llab o ra tio n b etw een B a r n e y Simon and Ngem a,
and C t n c Jn n L lI a
c o lla b o ra tiv e e ffo rt of B a r n e y Simon and his g ro u p at th e M a rk et T h e a tre .
It
is also tru e
th e a tre a re
the
th a t p ro d u c tio n s
less g ro u p - d ire c te d ,
lan g u ag es
of
the c o u n tr y
w h ich
all th e social g ro u p s
in a b rillia n t th e a tric a l montage.
a p a rth e id and the p o litic a l s itu a tio n
a g r e a t e r s tre s s on
fit th e d e s c rip tio n of A lt e r n a t iv e
in v o lv in g
still c o n s titu te th e m a trix ,
and all
W h ile
th e re is
the in d iv id u a l, and in s is te n c e on h u m anity - Ngema
has r e fe rre d to his p la y in th is g e n re , Wozn A lb o r l, w h ich co n ta in s some
f r a n k ly re v o lu tio n a ry e x h o rta tio n s , as a " c e le b r a tio n ”
to As í natnn 1i ) .
-2A4-
(p rogram m e notes
K ncnpitulation
It em erg es,
th e re fo re ,
tli.it th e re is a stro n g d e g re e of hom ogeneity in
term s of v a lu e s e x p re sse d in So u th A fr ic a n dram a, and th a t most of these
va lu e s a re in c o rp o ra te d in th e p la y s as c e le b ra tio n s of th e human
and
th e com passionate in c o n tra st tot th e d ehum anizing re a litie s of th e p re s e n t
social s itu a tio n in So u th A fr ic a .
s k i .i '.c t
h i h i . iot .k a i ' iiy
BRA N FO RD ,
A f r ic a .
W.
CO PLA N ,
D .B .
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IJIK t ,
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