Gender Chart
2015
Data ava ilable as of March 2014
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UNITED NATIONS
Photo: Trevor Samson / World Bank
Millennium Development Goals
GOAL 1 ❘ Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger
Women are more likely than men to live in the poorest households in 41 out of 75 countries
Ratio of women to men aged 20 to 59 in the lowest wealth quintile of all households, selected developing countries, 2000-2013
In 41 countries, women more likely
than men to live in poor households
In 17 countries, women equally likely
as men to live in poor households
In 17 countries, women less likely
than men to live in poor households
130
120
110
100
90
70
Burundi
Rwanda
Malawi
Gabon
Democratic Republic of the Congo
Chad
Burkina Faso
Namibia
Cameroon
Kenya
Nigeria
Zimbabwe
Sudan
Tanzania
Swaziland
Benin
Niger
Ethiopia
Togo
Maldives
India
Madagascar
Mozambique
Lebanon
Uganda
Tunisia
Guinea
Mali
Palestine
Central African Republic
Vanuatu
Cambodia
Timor Leste
Iraq
Tajikistan
Equatorial Guinea
Albania
Nepal
Senegal
Mauritania
Azerbaijan
Sierra Leone
Bangladesh
Comoros
Yemen
Morocco
Indonesia
Liberia
Bhutan
Egypt
Jordan
Côte D'Ivoire
Afghanistan
Turkey
Ghana
Zambia
Pakistan
Myanmar
Somalia
Uzbekistan
Viet nam
Armenia
Thailand
São Tomé and Príncipe
Republic of Moldova
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Kyrgyzstan
Ukraine
Philippines
Mongolia
Kazakhstan
Lesotho
Belarus
Montenegro
Serbia
80
Source: UN Women calculations using the latest available data from Demographic and Health Surveys (DHS) and the Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey (MICS).
Note: This indicator is weighted by the ratio of female to male aged 20-59 in all households to take into account the fact that women may be overrepresented in the entire population. Values
above 103 indicate that women are overrepresented in the poorest quintile. Values below 97 indicate that men are overrepresented in the poorest quintile. Values between 97 and 103 indicate
parity. “Poor households” refers to the bottom 20 per cent of households, using the wealth asset index as a proxy measure in DHS and MICS.
Data gaps limit our understanding of women’s experience of poverty. Data
on poverty and vulnerability to poverty by sex are not available in many
countries, making the assessment of global and regional trends very difficult. Despite such limitations, research shows that women face a heightened vulnerability to poverty. A recent study using the wealth asset index
as a proxy for household poverty found that women aged 20–59 are more
likely than men of the same age to live in poverty in most countries with
data. Further analysis indicates that in countries where women are over-
represented in the lowest wealth quintile of households, the households are
more likely to be headed by women or to have no male adults. This suggests
a greater risk of poverty among separated women, widows and single mothers, including self-reported heads of household without a male partner.
Many factors contribute to women’s heightened vulnerability to poverty.
These include unequal access to paid work, lower earnings, lack of social
protection and limited access to assets, including land, credit and property.
Women are still more likely than men to be in vulnerable employment, despite a decreasing trend of people
in vulnerable employment
Proportion of own account and contributing family workers in total employment, women and men, 1991-2015 (percentage)
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
Southern Asia
Oceania
South-Eastern
Asia
Source: ILO, 2015 (Key Indicators of the Labour Market Database).
Eastern Asia
Northern Africa
Caucasus and
Central Asia
Western Asia
Latin America
and the
Caribbean
Developed
regions
World
2015
2008
1991
1998
2015
2008
1991
1998
2015
2008
1991
1998
2015
2008
1991
1998
2015
2008
1991
1998
2008
1991
2015
2008
1991
1998
2015
2008
1991
1998
2015
2008
1991
1998
2015
2008
1991
1998
2015
2008
1991
1998
Sub-Saharan
Africa
Women
1998
Men
0
2015
10
Globally, the proportion of women in vulnerable employment – defined as
the share of own-account and contributing family workers in total employment – declined from 60 per cent in 1991 to 46 per cent in 2015, compared
to 53 and 44 per cent respectively for men. As a result, the gender gap has
declined from 7 to 2 percentage points during this period. Southern Asia,
sub-Saharan Africa and Oceania have the highest shares of women in vulnerable employment with more than 4 in 5 employed women in those regions in vulnerable employment.
The challenges posed by vulnerable employment are multiple. A recent ILO
report indicates that this group constitutes the overwhelming majority of
the world’s 300 million workers who live in extreme poverty. These jobs
generally provide limited income security, limited job security, poor working conditions and little or no social protection. For women, who constitute close to two-thirds of contributing family workers, the challenge is
even greater. Because this work is unpaid, it increases not only their vulnerability to poverty but can also contribute to a vicious cycle of low resources leading to lower bargaining power in the household.
GOAL 2 ❘ Achieve universal primary education
The gender gap in youth literacy has fallen since 1990, and a greater proportion of youth can read and write
Literacy rate among youth aged 15 to 24 by sex and region, 1990, 2000 and 2015 (percentage)
Since the 1990s, global progress in youth and adult literacy has been slow
but steady, and the gap between women and men has narrowed. The literacy rate among youth aged 15 to 24 increased globally from 83 per cent
in 1990 to 89 per cent in 2010. This improvement was largely a result of
increasing attendance in primary and secondary school among younger
generations. According to projections based on historical trends, 93 per
cent of male youths and 90 per cent of female youths are expected to be able
to read and write by the end of 2015.
Sub-Saharan Africa
Oceania
Southern Asia
Northern Africa and Southern Asia have shown the greatest improvement
in youth literacy, especially among young women. Over the past two decades, sub-Saharan Africa has also experienced a large increase in youth
literacy. However, compared to other regions, a smaller proportion of its
young women and men (70 and 78 per cent respectively) are expected to be
able to read and write by the end of 2015.
Northern Africa
Western Asia
South-Eastern Asia
Latin America and the Caribbean
Eastern Asia
Caucasus and Central Asia
40
50
Female
60
Male
70
1990
80
2000
90
100
2015 Projection
Source: United Nations, 2015 (The Millennium Development Goals Report 2015).
GOAL 3 ❘ Promote gender equality and empower women
Globally women earn 24 per cent less than men,
and gender gaps in pay persist in all regions
Distribution of working-age women and men (aged 15 and above) by
labour force participation and employed women and men by status in
employment, 2015 (percentage)
Working-age women and men
100
4
60
72
47
20
2
4
52
52
4.4
Western Asia
4
40
12
20
0
37
29
60
Oceania
3.6
80
3
40
7
18
23
50
Proportion of seats held by women in single or lower houses of national
parliament, 2000 and 2015 (percentage)
Employed women and men
100
80
There has been significant progress in women’s representation in national parliaments since 2000; but, in 2015, only
1 in 5 parliamentarians worldwide is a woman
Southern Asia
7
18
0
Women
Men
Women
Men
Employed
Contributing family workers
Unemployed
Own-account workers
Economically inactive
Employers
South-Eastern Asia
12
18
Caucasus and Central Asia
7
Wage and salaried workers
Note: Data for 2015 are projections.
Percentages in charts may not always add to 100 because of rounding.
18
Eastern Asia
20
22
Source: United Nations, 2015 (The Millennium Development Goals Report 2015).
Equal access to decent paid work, with earnings that support an adequate
standard of living and that are compatible with women’s and men’s shared
responsibility for unpaid care work, is essential for gender equality and
women’s empowerment. However, globally, less than half of working age
women are employed compared to almost three quarters of men. In developing regions, the majority of women remain concentrated in low-skilled,
low-paid jobs, often in the urban, informal and agricultural sectors that do
not provide an adequate route out of poverty.
Globally women earn 24 per cent less than men and perform two and a
half times more unpaid care and domestic work than men. This work,
which is essential for the development of children and for nurturing
healthy and productive individuals, may prevent women from fully engaging in employment, and too often goes unrecognized and unsupported
through adequate policies. Women are more likely than men to work as
contributing family workers, who have little or no financial security or
social benefits. In 2015, the proportion of employed women working as
contributing family workers is 18 per cent, compared to 7 per cent of employed men. Women are less likely to work as own-account workers. These
differences in occupations between women and men are some of the root
causes of the gender differences in pay.
Sub-Saharan Africa
13
23
Northern Africa
4
25
Latin America and the Caribbean
15
27
Developed regions
16
26
Developing regions
12
21
World
14
22
0
5
2000
10
15
20
25
30
2015
Source: United Nations, 2015 (The Millennium Development Goals Report 2015).
Since the MDGs were adopted, progress in women’s representation in
national parliaments has been significant. Globally, the proportion of
women in parliaments increased from 14 per cent in 2000 to 22 per cent
in 2015. In Northern Africa, in particular, progress has been impressive,
with women’s representation rising more than six-fold from 4 per cent to
25 per cent. Latin America and the Caribbean also registered impressive
gains. By 2015, it became the region with the highest share of women in
parliaments (27 per cent).
However, this also means that no region has more than one third of seats in
parliament held by women. Similarly, gender differences are also persistent
in other areas of decision-making not monitored by the MDGs: as of August
2015, there were 11 women Heads of State and 13 women Heads of Government (combined total of 19 women, because some hold both titles), and, as
of January 2015, only 18 per cent of government ministers were women.
GOAL 4 ❘ Reduce child mortality
Child survival is inextricably linked with gender equality and women’s empowerment
Infant and child mortality rates by mother’s characteristics and access to health services, 2004-2014 (deaths per 1,000 live births)
140
Infant mortality
120
Under-five mortality
125
100
95
95
87
80
78
60
77
70
61
65
60
53
52
54
51
46
40
38
31
20
0
No
education
Primary
Mother's education
Secondary
or higher
Less than
20
20-29
30-39
Mother's age at birth
40-49
Neither
One or the
other
Both
Access to antenatal and/or delivery care
Source: Calculated using data from Demographic and Health Survey STATCompiler. Data are based on simple averages for about 60 countries (2004-2014).
Globally, the rate of reducing child mortality has more than tripled since
1990. According to the latest estimates, the global under-five mortality
rate has declined by more than half, from 90 to 43 deaths per 1,000 live
births between 1990 and 2015. Despite the significant decline in child
mortality in most regions, current trends are not sufficient to meet the
child mortality target and will take about 10 more years to meet the global
target of reducing the under-five mortality rate.
Child health and maternal health are inextricably linked. When women
are educated and have access to comprehensive sexual and reproductive
health services both before and during delivery, children are far more
likely to survive. Mother’s age at birth is also a powerful determinant of
child survival. Childbearing at a young age, often the result of an early
marriage, and at an older age constitute a significant risk for these young
women and their children. Expanding access to sexual and reproductive
health services and rights, particularly for poor women and those living
in underserved locations such as rural areas, is important to improve the
lives of women and their children.
GOAL 5 ❘ Improve maternal health
Maternal mortality has declined by nearly 44 per cent since 1990; but most maternal deaths are still attributed to preventable causes
Maternal mortality ratio, 2015 (maternal deaths per 100,000 live births, women aged 15-49)
<20
20–99
100–299
300–499
Data not available
500–999
Not applicable
≥1000
Population <100 000 not included in the assessment
The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever
on the part of the World Health Organization concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities,
or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. Dotted and dashed lines on maps represent approximate border lines
for which there may not yet be full agreement.
0
Data Source: World Health Organization
Map Production: Health Statistics and
Information Systems (HSI)
World Health Organization
875
1,750
3,500 Kilometers
© WHO 2015. All rights reserved.
Source: WHO, 2015 (Trends in Maternal Mortality: 1990 to 2015. Estimates by WHO, UNICEF, UNFPA, World Bank Group and the United Nations Population Division).
Globally, there were an estimated 303,000 maternal deaths in 2015. The
maternal mortality ratio dropped by nearly 44 per cent from the 1990
level, but well below the MDG target to reduce the maternal mortality
ratio by three quarters by 2015. High levels of maternal mortality persist in sub-Saharan Africa and Southern Asia, which together accounted
for 88 per cent of the total maternal deaths in 2015. Most of these deaths
are preventable. The causes of maternal mortality vary by region but are
generally due to a lack of emergency obstetric care services, low levels of
skilled assistance at delivery, particularly for poor women, and the continued denial of sexual and reproductive health and rights for women and
girls in many countries. In particular, unsafe abortions also constitute a
leading cause of maternal deaths. Globally, in 2008, an estimated 21.6 million unsafe abortions took place, mostly in developing countries, resulting
in 47,000 deaths.
Unmet need for family planning has declined worldwide, but remains unacceptably high in most regions
Proportion of women aged 15-49 worldwide, married or in union, who have an unmet need for family planning or who are using any method of
contraception, 1990 and 2015 (percentage)
100
Contraceptive prevalence
Total demand for family planning = sum of contraceptive prevalence and unmet need for family planning
Unmet need for family planning
4
80
18
1990 2015
1990 2015
1990 2015
South-Eastern Asia
Northern Africa
1990 2015
1990 2015
1990 2015
1990 2015
World
44
Southern Asia
Western Asia
1990 2015
64
61
55
39
Caucasus and Central Asia
Oceania
Sub-Saharan Africa
29
28
64
49
44
39
28
13
19
61
49
40
0
59
15
Eastern Asia
28
21
58
57
24
22
21
25
12
73
Latin America and the Caribbean
60
83
78
17
12
12
14
14
14
20
6
11
1990 2015
1990 2015
Source: United Nations, 2015 (The Millennium Development Goals Report 2015).
Between 1990 and 2015 the unmet need for family planning has declined
worldwide. However, there are more than 225 million women (married
or in union) with unmet need for contraception who are not using mod-
ern contraception. In 2015, 12 per cent of married or in-union women
of reproductive age worldwide want to delay or avoid pregnancy but are
not using any method of contraceptive.
GOAL 6 ❘ Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases
The number of new HIV infections among young people has declined, but young women continue to be more vulnerable
than young men
Estimated number of new HIV infections among young women and men, aged 15-24, 2014
Sub-Saharan Africa
Since 2000, the number of new HIV infections has declined by 40 per cent,
from 3.5 million to 2.1 million. Young people aged 15-24 years constitute
30 per cent of those newly infected in 2014. Among youth, women constitute 56 per cent of those infected. In sub-Saharan Africa in particular,
where approximately 75 per cent of global infection among young people
occurs, the number of young women who are newly infected is nearly double the number of young men. Lack of comprehensive knowledge around
HIV and other gender-related factors, such as the inability of young women to negotiate safe sex, are major contributing factors and continue to
expose the inadequacy of current efforts to address young women’s unique
vulnerabilities.
260,000
150,000
South-eastern Asia
24,000
37,000
Southern Asia
24,000
29,000
Latin America
11,000
20,000
Eastern Asia
3,600
5,400
Caribbean
2,200
2,100
Caucasus and Central Asia
<1000
1,000
Northern Africa
<1000
<1000
Western Asia
<500
<1000
Oceania
<500
<200
0
50,000
Women
100,000
150,000
200,000
250,000
300,000
Men
Source: UNAIDS Database, 2015.
GOAL 7 ❘ Ensure environmental sustainability
Despite progress, women and girls still face constraints in access to improved drinking water and improved sanitation
Location to water source, travel time and primary water carriers in households, 2004-2014 (percentage)
Location of water source
Travel time to water source
Who collects water
4
4
8
15
20
26
46
54
69
54
more than 30 min
between 15 and 30 min
Not on premises
On premises
Women
Men
Girl < 15
Boy < 15
Other
15 min or less
Source: Calculated using Demographic and Health Surveys for 21 countries (2004-2014).
Access to safe drinking water and adequate sanitation is a basic human
right. Lack of access to water, sanitation and hygiene facilities constitutes
a major constraint for women and girls. Globally 663 million people still
lack improved drinking water sources; eight out of ten live in rural areas.
In households where water is not readily available, women and girls are
usually in charge of water collection. In 21 countries with data, only 46
per cent of households have access to water sources on premises. Out of
the remaining households, 54 per cent spend up to 15 minutes collecting
water, while 26 per cent spend between 15 and 30 minutes and the remaining 20 per cent take more than 30 minutes to go to the water source,
collect water and come back. In those households where water has to be
fetched, women and girls are the primary water carriers for their families,
doing the fetching in 77 per cent or more of households.
Population using shared sanitation facilities of an otherwise improved type in 2015, by region (millions)
In 2015, it is estimated that 2.4 billion people worldwide still lack improved
sanitation facilities. Of these, 638 million use shared facilities, which pose
particular problems for women and girls due to their lack of privacy and
safety, and 946 million have no toilet at all and defecate in the open. Women generally place higher priority than men on having a toilet in the home
and require more privacy in order to attend to their needs. However, they
rarely have the control over household resources that would enable them
to make the decision to invest in an improved sanitation facility.
25
211
64
42
73
Of the 638 million people
sharing sanitation of an
otherwise improved type,
two thirds live in
sub-Sahran Africa and
Southern Asia
194
Southern Asia
South-Eastern Asia
Sub-Sahran Africa
Latin America and the
Caribbean
Eastern Asia
Other regions
Source: UNICEF and WHO, 2015 (Progress on sanitation and drinking water: 2015 update and MDG assessment).
GOAL 8 ❘ Develop a global partnership for development
Aid to family planning and reproductive health has until recently been on a steady decline
Bilateral official development assistance to population policies/programmes and reproductive health, 1995-2013 Commitments (constant 2012 US$ billions)
US$ (billions)
Percentage
9
80
8
70
7
60
6
50
5
40
4
30
3
20
2
10
1
0
0
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
Bilateral aid: reproductive health care (left axis)
Bilateral aid: family planning (left axis)
Bilateral aid: HIV/AIDS control and other population policies and reproductive health (left axis)
Bilateral aid to family planning and reproductive health as a % of bilateral aid to population policies and reproductive health (right axis)
Source: OECD DAC database, 2015.
Reporting on the extent of donors’ commitments to addressing gender
equality in aid programming has improved in recent years. The OECD
Development Assistance Committee (DAC) gender equality policy marker
measures aid activities that target gender equality as a “principal” or “significant” policy objective. In recent years, aid focused on gender equality
has risen on average by 4 per cent annually, compared to overall aid which
grew at a mere 1 per cent annually. However, despite this growth, the share
of aid focused exclusively on promoting gender equality remains grossly
inadequate. In 2012-2013, only US$ 4 billion or 5 per cent of total screened
aid was spent on projects exclusively targeted at achieving gender equality
and women empowerment. Instead, the bulk of aid for gender equality
went to projects that include gender equality as a secondary objective.
The biggest gap in funding is in the area of women’s sexual and reproductive health and rights. Despite important commitments in this area,
as spelled out in MDG5 to improve maternal health, aid to population
policies/programmes and reproductive health has plateaued since 2008.
Also noteworthy, until recently, aid to family planning and reproductive
health as a percentage of overall aid to the sector has been on a steady
decline, despite continued high levels of unmet need for family planning,
and the double dividend of improving maternal and child health that such
services can provide.