Culture and Language
Revitalization for
Native American Students
An Annotated Bibliography
January 2015
West Comprehensive Center at WestEd
Culture and Language
Revitalization for
Native American Students
An Annotated Bibliography
January 2015
Prepared by
RMC Research Corporation for the
West Comprehensive Center at WestEd
Linda Fredericks
Annette Shtivelband
Emma Espel
Amanda Withington
West Comprehensive Center at WestEd
Culture and Language Revitalization for Native American Students
RMC Research Corporation, an approved subcontractor, produced this
report for the West Comprehensive Center at WestEd. This work has been
funded with monies received from ·the U.S. Department of Education
under Grant Award S283B120006. The content does not necessarily reflect
the position or policy of the U.S. Department of Education, nor does
mention or visual representation of trade names, commercial products, or
organizations imply endorsement by the federal government.
© 2015 WestEd. All rights reserved.
Requests for permission to reproduce any part of this report for any other
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Suggested citation: Fredericks, L., Shtivelband, A., Espel, E., & Withington, A.
(2015). Culture and language revitalization for Native American students:
An annotated bibliography. [A report from the West Comprehensive Center.]
San Francisco, CA: WestEd.
iii / WEST COMPREHENSIVE CENTER
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Culture and Language Revitalization for Native American Students
Contents
Introduction........................................................................................ 1
Methods............................................................................................... 3
College-Community Partnerships...................................................... 6
Culture-Based Education and Culturally Responsive Teaching....... 9
Early Childhood Education............................................................... 20
Family and Community Involvement/Engagement........................ 24
Language Revitalization and Immersion Efforts............................. 31
Mentoring and Peer Tutoring........................................................... 36
Policy Considerations....................................................................... 37
Teacher Preparation and Support.................................................... 41
Appendix: Summary of Topics Covered in All Articles
Contained in the Annotated Bibliography of Culture and
Language Revitalization Literature.................................................. 44
References......................................................................................... 53
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Culture and Language Revitalization for Native American Students
Introduction
T
hroughout the United States,
efforts to revitalize culture
and language continue to
be of crucial importance to
Native American populations.
Numerous Native languages, for example,
are threatened with extinction, with only small
numbers of fluent speakers remaining, and
many other languages have already perished
(Crawford, 1995).
Federal, state, and local recognition of
the vital importance of revitalizing Native
language and culture has led to a number of
major programmatic, research, and funding
initiatives over the last 25 years (Beaulieu,
2008; McCoy, 2000; Warhol, 2011). At
the federal level, policy has been enacted
through executive orders as well as by
congressional acts; some of the key initiatives
in support of Native culture and language are
listed below.
The Native American Language Act of 1990
declares as policy that Native Americans are
entitled to use their own languages.
• Executive Order 13096, “American
Indian and Alaska Native Education,”
signed by President Clinton in 1998,
centers on improving academic
performance and reducing the
dropout rate of American Indian and
Alaska Native (AI/AN) students.
• Executive Order 13336, “American
Indian and Alaska Native Education,”
signed into law by President Bush
in 2004, calls for the formation of
an Interagency Working Group
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composed of representatives from
the Department of Education, the
Department of Health and Human
Services, and other government
agencies to ensure that AI/AN
students meet the requirements of
the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001
in “a manner consistent with tribal
traditions, languages, and cultures”
(p. 1).
• The Esther Martinez Native American
Languages Preservation Act, signed
into law by President Bush in 2006,
intends to prevent the loss of
heritage and culture through funding
of language immersion programs.
• Executive Order 13175,
“Consultation and Coordination
with Tribal Governments,” signed
by President Obama in 2009,
intends to improve relationships
between federal agencies and tribal
governments.
Native communities from across the country
are deeply engaged in the complex and
often difficult process of teaching young
people the value of traditional languages and
cultural practices while ensuring that youth
are also prepared to acquire the academic
knowledge and career skills needed for
life in the 21st century (Warhol, 2011). This
annotated bibliography has been prepared to
inform educators, tribal leaders, researchers,
and policymakers about research-based
efforts to identify promising practices related
to reclaiming and revitalizing language and
culture at all stages of education, from early
childhood to postsecondary education.
Culture and Language Revitalization for Native American Students
While most articles, or entries (e.g., reports,
books, journal articles), describe culture- and
language-revitalization efforts with specific
populations in a few geographic locations,
there are persistent indications across the
literature that some key practices, such as
family involvement, academically rigorous
language instruction, and the thoughtful
integration of culture throughout various
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subject areas, may be generalizable to a
broad segment of Native communities. The
articles described in this bibliography provide
examples of how some Native communities
approach teaching languages and cultural
traditions to their youth while simultaneously
preparing students for life in the modern
technological age.
Culture and Language Revitalization for Native American Students
Methods
A
n initial search of the
literature addressing Native
American graduation and
dropout rates and issues
yielded approximately
4,270 articles. They were found through
Internet searches conducted using several
academic search engines, including
Academic Search Premier, ERIC, Google
Scholar, and LexisNexis Academic.
A number of key words were used in the
search, including the following:
Alaska Native, American Indian, child
development, college-community
partnerships, community engagement,
community-university partnerships, cultural
competence, cultural programming,
cultural relevance, culturally appropriate,
culturally based education, culturally
responsive instruction/pedagogy/schooling,
curriculum, dropout prevention, dropouts,
early childhood education, educational
aspirations, educational outcomes, family
and community involvement, family and
community support, graduation, heritage
language, indigenous Americans, language
immersion/renewal/revitalization, mentoring,
Native American, Native Hawaiian, parents,
policy, pre-professional training, professional
development, protective factors, resiliency,
retention strategies, school failure, student
achievement, teacher preparation, teacher
support, traditional culture, transition from
high school to higher education, tribal
communities, and tutoring.
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Acceptable publications included articles
from research periodicals, literature reviews,
books or book chapters based on recent
research, doctoral dissertations, papers
presented at conferences, and researchbased information briefs or reports.
Excluded documents included newspaper
and magazine articles and simple program
descriptions lacking methodology or
references. After using these criteria to filter
the articles identified in the initial search,
approximately 1,820 articles remained. These
remaining articles were then filtered again
using the following criteria:
• written during the 20-year period
from 1994 through the end of 2014,
when this bibliography was drafted;
• pertaining to Native American
populations residing within the
United States; and
• including a minimum sample size in
research studies of 20 respondents
from a single category (e.g., students,
teachers, or parents).
This final filtering process resulted in a total
of 75 articles selected for review. Those
articles were then categorized into eight topic
areas related to Native American culture and
language preservation. Although many of the
articles pertain to multiple topics, to avoid
redundancy, each was categorized under its
predominant theme and is not duplicated
elsewhere in the document. Tables displaying
each article according to its primary topic
Culture and Language Revitalization for Native American Students
area, as well as the other topic areas
discussed, appear in the appendix.
Each entry in this annotated bibliography
features the name of the publication,
bibliographic information, a content abstract,
and, if available, a web link to the article
itself or to information about purchasing it.
Findings, recommendations, and implications
for policy, practice, and research are
highlighted in each entry as applicable.
The eight topics areas are described below.
College-Community Partnerships.
Articles in this section discuss ways that
institutions of higher education can
collaborate with tribal communities to
provide a sense of academic, social, and
cultural continuity to students and to promote
research and education partnerships that are
perceived as mutually beneficial.
Culture-Based Education and
Culturally Responsive Teaching.
Demmert and Towner (2003) defined
culture-based education programs as
having six critical elements: (1) recognition
and use of Native American (i.e., American
Indian, Alaska Native, and Native Hawaiian)
languages; (2) pedagogy that emphasizes
traditional cultural characteristics and adultchild interactions as the starting place for
education; (3) pedagogy in which teaching
strategies are congruent with traditional
culture as well as with contemporary ways
of knowing and learning; (4) curriculum that
is based on traditional culture, recognizes
the importance of Native spirituality, and
places the education of young children in
a contemporary context; (5) strong Native
community participation; and (6) knowledge
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of the use of social and political mores of the
community. Entries in this section explore
the research literature on this topic, effective
programs for the development of culturebased education in schools, and teaching
practices that appropriately support cultural
heritage and expression.
Early Childhood Education. The
incorporation of culturally appropriate
curriculum, parent involvement, professional
development, and Native language
instruction in early childhood education
programs are among the issues examined
under this topic. Articles here address
the need for high-quality early childhood
education in Native communities and
factors that promote a supportive learning
environment.
Family and Community Involvement/
Engagement. A strong sense of support
from family and community is associated
with positive self-image, cultural identity,
and resilience in Native youth. Items in this
section examine the specific factors that
support students’ well-being and promote
the engagement of parents and families in
their children’s school.
Language Revitalization and
Immersion Efforts. Researchers have
documented a precipitous decline in the
number of Native languages being used in
this country, with many existing languages
only utilized by a small number of older
speakers. Recognizing the inextricable link
between language and culture, dozens of
tribal communities have initiated efforts
to revitalize their Native languages, often
through the use of immersion programs.
Articles detail the need for, and multiple
Culture and Language Revitalization for Native American Students
benefits of, language programs. Descriptions
of exemplary programs in language
instruction and immersion are included.
Mentoring and Peer Tutoring. Both
cross-age mentoring efforts and peer
mentoring are described in articles that
document impacts on Native students’
academic, career, and cultural aspirations.
Policy Considerations. Several resources
in this section provide historical perspectives
on the many federal policies that have
profoundly impacted the lives, languages,
and cultures of the Native American
population in this country. Other publications
look at implications of contemporary
education policies affecting Native students,
families, and communities.
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Teacher Preparation and Support.
A variety of articles address teacher
training programs and teacher knowledge
essential for the implementation of culturally
responsive classrooms. Adequate preparation
and support for teachers working with Native
American populations are key factors in
teacher commitment, student retention,
creation of instruction that is engaging to
Native students, and collaboration with
Native families in support of students’
academic, social, and emotional well-being.
Note: Within the field, how Indigenous
people and groups are referred to varies.
With a few exceptions, each annotated article
in this bibliography uses the terminology of
its author(s).
Culture and Language Revitalization for Native American Students
College-Community Partnerships
American Indians and Alaska Natives in
Higher Education: Promoting Access and
Achievement
Better Together: Coeur d’Alene
Reservation Communities and the
University of Idaho
Pavel, D. M. (1999). American Indians
and Alaska Natives in higher education:
Promoting access and achievement. In
K. G. Swisher & J. W. Tippeconnic III (Eds.),
Next steps: Research and practice to advance
Indian education (pp. 239–258). Charleston,
WV: ERIC Clearinghouse on Rural Education
and Small Schools.
Salant, P., & Laumatia, L. (2011). Better
together: Coeur d’Alene reservation
communities and the University of Idaho.
Journal of Higher Education Outreach and
Engagement, 15(3), 101–112.
Utilizing findings from an extensive review of
the literature focused on the achievement of
American Indian and Alaska Native (AI/AN)
students in higher education, this publication
suggests that AI/AN students are more likely
to attend a 2-year college and less likely to
complete a bachelor’s degree than other U.S.
ethnic groups. The author recommends that
colleges and governments promote K–16
partnerships with tribes to ease the transition
from high school to college for Native
American students. Institutions of higher
education should provide culturally specific
academic programs, student service support,
mentoring, and sufficient financial aid. Tribal
colleges are viewed as exemplary in terms of
recruiting, retaining, and having supportive
campus environments for AI/AN students.
The author suggests that non‑Indian
institutions may benefit from following the
approach of tribal colleges.
Available at http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/
ED427912.pdf
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This article describes the partnership
between the University of Idaho’s Better
Together program (Horizons and Building
Sustainable Communities Initiative) and the
Coeur d’Alene reservation communities.
This partnership was created through the
Outreach Scholarship, supported by the
W. K. Kellogg Foundation Engagement
Award for the Western Region. The article
summarizes findings from partnership
activities that occurred from 2006 to 2009.
The partnership was intended to serve the
Coeur d’Alene reservation community and
the students that attended the University
of Idaho. Five lessons were learned from
this partnership: (1) successful community
engagement occurred through helping
teaching and research faculty build local
relationships and access local knowledge
with the reservation; (2) offering handson, place-based graduate programs
attracted more qualified and motivated
candidates; (3) capacity- and leadershipbuilding programs helped facilitate effective
partnerships between the university and
tribal communities; (4) the departmentbased structure in universities was not
well-suited for working with complex
Culture and Language Revitalization for Native American Students
communities; and (5) working with tribes
was an iterative process through which the
university community learned about being a
good partner.
Identifying Community Needs and
Resources in a Native Community:
A Research Partnership in the
Pacific Northwest
Available at http://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ945484
Thomas, L. R., Donovan, D. M., & Sigo, R. L.
W. (2010). Identifying community needs and
resources in a Native community: A research
partnership in the Pacific Northwest.
International Journal of Mental Health
Addiction, 8(2), 362–373.
Building Community-University
Partnerships by Listening, Learning, and
Responding
Martenson, D. M., Newman, D. A., & Zak,
D. M. (2011). Building community-university
partnerships by listening, learning, and
responding. Journal of Extension, 49(5), 1–7.
This article describes a partnership approach
that was developed by the University of
Minnesota Extension to expand work in
Indian country. The approach taken by the
extension was to build community-university
partnerships through a methodology of
gathering data by listening; learning by
creating opportunities for professional
development; and responding by building
trusting relationships in Indian Country. This
approach resulted in more educators working
in partnership with Native communities. The
authors suggest that educators who seek a
mutually beneficial exchange of knowledge
and resources with community partners
will be more likely to address the interests
of the community in an appropriate and
sustainable manner. The authors emphasize
that positive outcomes are achieved when
there is a mutual respect for the strengths of
each partner and the joint identification of
opportunities, solutions, and success.
Available at http://www.joe.org/
joe/2011october/a4.php
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This article emphasizes the ways in which
blending participatory research, theory, and
practice with community-driven assessment
of assets and needs can help academic and
community-based researchers better identify
needs and resources with Native populations.
The authors discuss the utility of this approach
in terms of developing interventions and
health promotion programs that respect tribal
sovereignty. The study provides a case study
in which this blended approach is utilized
and describes how this case can inform other
similar research partnerships.
Available for purchase at http://link.springer.
com/article/10.1007%2Fs11469-009-9233-1
Retaining American Indian/Alaskan Native
Students in Higher Education: A Case
Study of One Partnership Between
the Tohono O’odham Nation and Pima
Community College, Tucson, Arizona
Campbell, A. E. (2007). Retaining American
Indian/Alaskan Native students in higher
education: A case study of one partnership
between the Tohono O’odham Nation and
Pima Community College, Tucson, Arizona.
Journal of American Indian Education, 46(2),
19–41.
Culture and Language Revitalization for Native American Students
The case study describes a partnership
between the Tohono O’odham Nation and
Pima Community College in Tucson, Arizona.
The partnership was intended to address
a critical need in the tribe for qualified
health personnel and was designed to
meet the needs of nontraditional students
who chose to live on the reservation.
Twenty-four students participated in the
program, with seven earning degrees
during the program. The author describes
the social context in which this program
was developed, the culturally responsive
curriculum it provided, the application of a
functional collaborative approach through
this program, and the overall results of
the partnership. The author concludes
with contextual factors that seemed to be
most beneficial in the program and for
students. These factors included providing
scholarships to tribal members so the tribe
could have health care workers who were
knowledgeable and sensitive to traditional
cultural practices. Other contributing factors
to program success were: (1) a flexible
administration team; (2) committed teaching
faculty; (3) collaborative reading and writing
departments; (4) early designation of the
program liaisons and representatives; and
(5) tribal supports, such as offering stipends
to allow students to stay in Tucson for classes
and not have to drive the long distance from
the reservation.
Available at https://jaie.asu.edu/sites/
default/files/462_2007_2_campbell.pdf
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‘Walk Softly and Listen Carefully’:
Building Research Relationships with
Tribal Communities
NCAI Policy Research Center and MSU
Center for Native Health Partnerships. (2012).
‘Walk softly and listen carefully’: Building
research relationships with tribal communities.
Washington, DC, and Bozeman, MT: Authors.
This collaborative partnership between the
National Congress of American Indians
(NCAI), the NCAI Policy Research Center,
Montana State University, and the Crow Indian
Reservation highlights strategies to build
research relationships with tribal communities.
The policy report describes a variety of
partnerships between these agencies and
highlights a program intended for at-risk
youth called RezRIDERS. The program has
four major components: (1) extreme sports
paired with activity clusters; (2) indigenized
behavioral-cognitive lessons; (3) Native adult
cultural mentorship; and (4) youth-driven
community empowerment/action projects.
Findings from this research partnership
suggest the following as being effective
practices: (1) personal, sustained relationships
between community-based and academic
researchers; (2) dedicated and committed
people; (3) establishing a Tribal Research
Team (TRT) to inform stakeholders; and
(4) selecting a topic with lasting significance
for the community to form the foundation for
a sustained partnership.
Available at http://www.ncai.
org/attachments/PolicyPaper_
SpMCHTcjxRRjMEjDnPmesENPzjHTwhOlOW
xlWOIWdSrykJuQggG_NCAI-WalkSoftly.pdf
Culture and Language Revitalization for Native American Students
Culture-Based Education and
Culturally Responsive Teaching
A Review of the Research Literature
on the Influences of Culturally Based
Education on the Academic Performance
of Native American Students
Demmert, W. G., Jr., & Towner, J. C. (2003).
A review of the research literature on the
influences of culturally based education
on the academic performance of Native
American students. Portland, OR: Northwest
Regional Education Laboratory.
This review examined research literature
about the impact of culture-based education
programs on the school performance of
American Indian, Alaska Native, and Native
Hawaiian children. The review included
studies classified as experimental or quasiexperimental, with a small number of nonexperimental comparative studies included.
Citing the paucity of sophisticated research
in this area, the authors called for more
high-quality research studies to explore the
connection between culture-based education
and improved academic performance.
Available at http://educationnorthwest.
org/resources/review-research-literatureinfluences-culturally-based-educationacademic-performance
A Survey and Assessment of Culturally
Based Education Programs for Native
American Students in the United States
Beaulieu, D. (2006). A survey and assessment
of culturally based education programs for
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Native American students in the United
States. Journal of American Indian Education,
45(2), 50–61.
This article defines the essential features of
culture-based education (CBE) and reviews
the findings of a comprehensive survey of
CBE programs in the United States. The
author found five distinct types of CBE
programs: culture-based instruction, Native
language instruction, Native studies, Native
cultural enrichment, and culturally relevant
materials. The author maintains that too few
programs serve as models, and schools need
to be redesigned to more effectively educate
Native American students. Recommended
components of school redesign include
cultivating significant, long-term, and
sustained efforts to train teachers from the
local community; applying appropriate
professional development strategies; using
locally based research to inform educators
and community members; developing
local standards for the education of Native
students; identifying curricular approaches
consistent with locally defined educational
objectives; creating accreditation standards
to evaluate the quality and accomplishment
of efforts; and fostering new knowledge
necessary to guide this development among
tribal leaders.
Available at https://jaie.asu.edu/sites/
default/files/452_2006_8_beaulieu.pdf
Culture and Language Revitalization for Native American Students
American Indian Cultures and the
Classroom
Van Hamme, L. (1995). American Indian
cultures and the classroom. Journal of
American Indian Education, 35(2), 21–36.
This article examines ways to support the
maintenance of traditional and contemporary
American Indian cultures in schools while
helping students prepare for the future. The
author first outlines the history of American
Indian cultures and the education system
and, then, presents issues, definitions, and
perceptions of multicultural education.
Educators of American Indian youth are
encouraged to validate and support culture
in the classroom and thereby help to extend
cultural strengths developed by youth back
into their communities.
An Exploratory Study of Cultural Identity
and Culture-Based Educational Programs
for Urban American Indian Students
Powers, K. M. (2006). An exploratory study of
cultural identity and culture-based educational
programs for urban American Indian students.
Urban Education, 41(1), 20–49.
Using a sample of 240 students from an
urban area, the author explored culturebased education practices for American
Indian students. Findings indicate that
culture-based programming had a mostly
indirect effect that was largely mediated
by conditions that benefited all students,
such as safer school climates, more
parental involvement, and a higher quality
of instruction. These conditions, in turn,
were associated with higher achievement.
The effect of cultural programs on student
outcomes in achievement, participation,
and completion was higher for students
10 / WEST COMPREHENSIVE CENTER
who had stronger cultural identification.
The author concluded that American Indian
students benefited from factors that tended
to support learning for all students, and
CBE programs served to improve student
outcomes most noticeably when other
fundamental conditions of quality schools
were present and when students possessed
strong cultural identification.
Available at https://www.csulb.edu/
org/college/spsa/docs/documents/
UrbanEducationfinalarticle.pdf
Cultural Differences of Teaching and
Learning: A Native American Perspective
of Participating in Educational Systems
and Organizations
Bowman, N. R. (2003). Cultural differences
of teaching and learning: A Native American
perspective of participating in educational
systems and organizations. American Indian
Quarterly, 27(1/2), 91–102.
The purpose of this paper is to examine
Native American graduation rates and
achievement gaps. The author found that
Native Americans are underrepresented in
higher education and in research agendas.
The paper suggests that such systemic
strategies as collaborative learning, multiethnic research teams, culturally relevant
programs, multicultural education integrated
into the classroom, Native American mentors,
cultural understanding, and policy changes to
support diversity and high poverty should be
examined and perhaps implemented.
Available at http://www.jstor.org/
discover/4138847?sid=21104885214361&
uid=2&uid=4&uid=3739256
Culture and Language Revitalization for Native American Students
Culturally Appropriate Curriculum:
A Research-Based Rationale
Yazzie, T. (1999). Culturally appropriate
curriculum: A research-based rationale. In
K. G. Swisher & J. W. Tippeconnic III (Eds.),
Next steps: Research and practice to advance
Indian education (pp. 83–106). Charlotte,
WV: Appalachia Educational Laboratory,
ERIC Clearinghouse on Rural Education and
Small Schools.
This article examines theoretical and practical
research studies that support and inform
the development of culturally appropriate
curriculum for American Indian children in
K–12 classrooms. The studies fall into the
following five areas: (1) historical roots,
including the Merriam Report of 1928;
(2) theoretical frameworks, which include
modes of linguistic interaction, supportive
learning environments, and communication
and interaction styles of students and
teachers; (3) curriculum development,
including approaches to overcoming
culture conflict, parent and community
involvement, inquiry-based curriculum, role
of Native language in concept development,
local community issues, and appropriate
communication with elders; (4) curriculum
practice and implementation, such as
characteristics and behaviors of effective
teachers, and teacher role; and (5) implications
for education research and practice.
Available at http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/
ED427906.pdf
11 / WEST COMPREHENSIVE CENTER
Culturally Responsive Schooling for
Indigenous Youth: A Review of the
Literature
Castagno, A. E., & Brayboy, B. M. J. (2008).
Culturally responsive schooling for Indigenous
youth: A review of the literature. Review of
Educational Research, 78(4), 941–993.
This article reviews the literature on culturally
responsive schooling (CRS) for Native
youth in the United States. The authors
first provide an historical overview of CRS
for Native students. Second, the authors
identify ways in which CRS has been defined
and conceptualized in the research. Third,
they discuss commonly used rationale for
educators to use CRS with Native youth.
Fourth, the authors review the two most
commonly discussed topics related to
CRS with this population: pedagogy and
curriculum. Fifth, the authors describe how
teacher characteristics such as being warm,
caring, and respectful are necessary for
teachers to engage Native youth using a
CRS approach. Sixth, school- and districtlevel issues related to CRS are discussed.
Finally, case studies and other successful
attempts with CRS and Native youth are
described. The authors argue that future CRS
research should focus on tribal sovereignty
and self‑determination, racism, and
indigenous epistemologies.
Available for purchase at http://rer.sagepub.
com/content/78/4/941
Culture and Language Revitalization for Native American Students
Culture, Chaos, and Complexity: Catalysts
for Change in Indigenous Education
Available at http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/
ED425032.pdf
Barnhardt, R., & Kawagley, A. O. (1998).
Culture, chaos, and complexity: Catalysts for
change in Indigenous education. Cultural
Survival Quarterly, 27(4), 59–64.
Does Cultural Programming Improve
Educational Outcomes for American
Indian Youth?
In 1995, the Alaska Native/Rural Education
Consortium established the Alaska Rural
Systemic Initiative (AKRSI) to unite more
than 50 organizations serving Native youth.
AKRSI was established to promote the
complementary relationship between Native
systems of knowledge and the way that
educators approach teaching Native students.
Specifically, the reform strategy of AKRSI
focuses on strengthening Native student
education by creating a dual system that
leverages indigenous knowledge systems of
Native cultures and formal education, and
integrating these two systems. The AKRSI
dual system resulted in the development of
the following reform strategy components:
(1) Native ways of knowing, (2) academy
of elders, (3) cultural standards, (4) cultural
documentation/cultural atlas, (5) Native
science fairs, (6) Alaska Native Knowledge
Network, (7) Alaska Native science education
coalition, (8) math and science performance
standards, (9) performance assessment
system, (10) math/science unit-building
workshops, (11) village science curriculum,
and (12) Native educator associations. This
reform strategy was associated with the
following positive outcomes for Native
students: (1) decreased rate of dropout;
(2) increased student achievement; (3) more
students attending college; and (4) increased
interest in science, technology, engineering,
and math (STEM) courses and positions.
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Powers, K., Potthof, S. J., Bearinger, L.
H., & Resnick, M. D. (2003). Does cultural
programming improve educational outcomes
for American Indian youth? Journal of
American Indian Education, 42(2), 17–49.
The purpose of this study was to examine the
effects of culturally responsive programming
on student outcomes for urban American
Indian youth. The authors approached this
study through the lens of ecological systems
theory, suggesting that student learning
in school stems from multiple bidirectional
and complex environmental transactions.
Relationships between culturally responsive
programming and student outcomes were
examined with a sample of 240 American
Indian students. Study participants were
surveyed as part of the Indian Youth
Resiliency Impact Study (IRIS). Students were
either enrolled in a culture-based afterschool
program, which included academic tutoring,
sports activities, social skills development,
and substance-use resistance skills, or were
selected from public school enrollment
records to be part of a comparison group.
Structural equation modeling revealed
that cultural programming moderately and
indirectly influenced student outcomes.
The strongest predictors of school success
appeared to be the extent to which schools
provided supportive personnel and safe and
drug-free environments.
Available at https://jaie.asu.edu/sites/default/
files/422_2003_2_powers_et_al.pdf
Culture and Language Revitalization for Native American Students
Effective Practices for Creating
Transformative Informal Science
Education Programs Grounded in Native
Ways of Knowing
Mack, E., Augare, H., Cloud-Jones, L. D.,
& Wippert, R. (2012). Effective practices for
creating transformative informal science
education programs grounded in Native
ways of knowing. Cultural Studies of Science
Education, 7(1), 49–70.
The authors assert that informal science
education (ISE) has the potential to
incorporate Native ways of knowing into
science learning among Native youth. This
article reviews research on the associations
among culture, traditional knowledge, and
science learning. It then examines effective
practices for the development and use of
curriculum that incorporates traditional
knowledge into science. In addition to
the literature review, interviews with
21 educators across the nation and nine
Indigenous education and science experts
were conducted to identify best practices
in ISE programs. Results suggest three
best practices for creating successful ISE
programs based on Native ways of knowing.
The first is to create lessons reflecting the
culture of people in the area. The second
is to utilize the surrounding community as
an integral resource. The third is making
use of the Native language in Native youth
pedagogy and curriculum. The authors also
discuss other recommendations generated
by the Consensus Advisory Committee to
help realize effective ISE practices, such
as providing programs with communityspecific values, engaging community
members, viewing culture as foundational,
promoting cultural relevancy and context,
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using traditional ways of teaching, and
creating space for knowledge to be shared
and respected. The authors conclude by
emphasizing the importance of integrating
Native ways of knowing into ISE programs
and provide the following recommendations
to implement and strengthen existing
programs: (1) create hands-on, inquirybased lessons that reflect the people in their
aboriginal homeland; (2) use the community
as an integral resource in developing
curriculum and instruction; (3) use Native
language to facilitate instruction and to
promote the Native worldview; (4) match
the values of the program to the values of
the people; (5) seek out and engage people
from the community and beyond who can
share cultural and scientific knowledge
related to the community; (6) ensure that
culture is foundational to the program; (7) use
traditional ways of teaching and pedagogy;
(8) create space for all knowledge and
experience to be shared and respected;
(9) approach learning sacredly; (10) seek
out creative collaborations to utilize
resources within the tribe and community;
(11) encourage policy change by modeling
processes and educating stakeholders; and
(12) incorporate research on Native ways
of knowing and Western science that is
community initiated and overseen.
Available for purchase at http://link.springer.
com/article/10.1007%2Fs11422-011-9374-y
Effective Standards-Based Practices for
Native American Students: A Review of
Research Literature
Apthorp, H. S., D’Amato, E. D., & Richardson,
A. (2002). Effective standards-based practices
for Native American students: A review
Culture and Language Revitalization for Native American Students
of research literature. Washington, DC:
U.S. Department of Education, Institute
of Education Sciences, National Center
for Education Evaluation and Regional
Assistance, Mid-Continent Research for
Education and Learning, Aurora, CO.
This report reviews education programs
and practices that have improved Native
American student achievement in English
language arts and mathematics. In Navajo
tribal schools, teaching Indigenous language
and literacy first, followed by teaching
English and promoting bilingualism, helped
students perform well on tests of vocabulary,
comprehension, and writing. In Hawaii, a
culturally congruent English language arts
program significantly improved Native
Hawaiian children’s achievement in reading.
Emphasis on comprehension over mechanics
and phonics allowed children to learn in
ways that were congruent with their everyday
experiences outside of school. The use
of ethnomathematics, based on the same
principles of cultural congruence, led to
improved achievement for Native Hawaiian
children and Alaskan rural middle school
students. All of these programs required
extensive collaboration between homes,
schools, and other relevant stakeholders
(e.g., local community members, educators,
university faculty, outside researchers) and
time across years to build relationships.
Although limited in scope, the evidence
suggests that congruency between the
school environment and the culture of the
community is critical to education success.
Collaborative research and development
efforts, carried out at the local level, are
needed. Seven action steps to improve
student achievement are recommended,
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including: (1) developing collaborative
partnerships between researchers, community
members, and school staff; (2) using
informal assessments, such as interviews and
observations, to track student and learning
interaction; (3) providing funding support to
teachers and external partners to evaluate
cultural congruence and to develop or adapt
curriculum that incorporates students’ cultural
knowledge in ways that connect with contentarea knowledge and skills; (4) establishing
and monitoring benchmarks in reading
comprehension, communication, and
mathematics; (5) using multiple measures,
such as formal assessments and observation
protocols, to track student progress;
(6) establishing observation protocols to
ensure implementation quality; and (7) using
multiple measures and observation protocols
to support field testing, address issues, and
revise curriculum as necessary.
Available at http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/
ED469297.pdf
Effective Teaching Strategies for
Engaging Native American Students
Sorkness, H. L., & Kelting-Gibson, L. (2006,
February). Effective teaching strategies
for engaging Native American students.
Paper presented at the National Association
of Native American Studies Conference,
Baton Rouge, LA.
Statistical data from 2003 for the states
of Montana and South Dakota revealed a
high dropout rate among Native American
students and a high school graduation rate
that was the lowest among various minorities
in those states. Achievement test scores in
both states were also low for Native American
Culture and Language Revitalization for Native American Students
students. To find ways to improve this
situation, the study surveyed teachers from
two schools in South Dakota with a significant
Native population, as well as a group of
K–12 teachers from Montana, to determine
what strategies teachers had found to be
most successful in raising the achievement
of Native students. Teachers were also asked
about aspects of Native American culture that
had the most significant impact on classroom
interactions and about historical and cultural
obstacles to students’ education success.
Effective teaching strategies described by
teachers included developing personal
relationships with students, maintaining
respect for Native culture, integrating Native
history and culture into the curriculum, and
reinforcing student pride in their heritage.
Available at http://www2.ed.gov/rschstat/
research/pubs/oieresearch/conference/
sorkness_200602.pdf
Engaging Native American Learners with
Rigor and Cultural Relevance
Oakes, A., & Maday, T. (2009). Engaging
Native American learners with rigor and
cultural relevance [Issue brief]. Washington,
DC: The Center for Comprehensive School
Reform and Improvement.
This information brief identifies strategies
that simultaneously foster Native American
student engagement and improved
academic achievement. The document
explores three areas that are identified in
the literature as culturally relevant strategies
for Native students: (1) instructional
practices (e.g., using culturally relevant
and responsive instruction); (2) curriculum
content (e.g., infusing culturally relevant
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practices across school curriculum, providing
content that is accurate and free of bias);
and (3) school climate (e.g., ensuring student
engagement, high expectations). The
authors conclude with examples of practice
that exemplify these culturally relevant
strategies, such as Zuni Public School District
in New Mexico and Denver Public Schools
in Colorado.
Available at http://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED507588
Handbook of Heritage, Community, and
Native American Languages in the United
States: Research, Policy, and Educational
Practice
Wiley, T. G., Peyton, J. K., Christian, D.,
Moore, S. C., & Liu, N. (2014). Handbook of
heritage, community, and Native American
languages in the United States: Research,
policy, and educational practice. New York,
NY: Routledge.
This book addresses major issues and research
related to heritage, community, and Native
American languages in the United States.
The publication examines speakers’ use of
languages in the home, community, and wider
society; patterns of acquisition, retention,
loss, and revitalization of the languages;
and specific educational efforts devoted to
developing stronger connections with them
as well as proficiency in them. One section
of the book profiles seven Native American
languages — Navajo, Pueblo, Miami,
Hawaiian, and three languages spoken by
the Confederated Tribes of Warm Springs
Reservation in central Oregon — and efforts
to revitalize them. Another section of the book
focuses on language programs and explores
different types of programs, funding options,
Culture and Language Revitalization for Native American Students
instructional approaches, identity construction
with students, assessment of language
proficiency, and teacher preparation.
Available for purchase at
http://www.routledge.com/books/
details/9780415520676/
Learning Styles of American Indian/
Alaska Native Students: A Review of the
Literature and Implications for Practice
Pewewardy, C. (2002). Learning styles of
American Indian/Alaska Native students:
A review of the literature and implications
for practice. Journal of American Indian
Education, 41(3), 22–56.
This extensive literature review examines
theories, research, and models of learning
styles of American Indian/Alaska Native
students and suggests that these students
generally learn in ways characterized by
social/affective emphasis, harmony, holistic
perspectives, expressive creativity, and
nonverbal communication. The author states
that Native learning styles are somewhat
different from the mainstream but not in
any sense deficient. The article discusses
implications for instruction, curricula,
assessment, and future research.
National Indian Education Study 2009 Part II: The Educational Experiences
of American Indian and Alaska Native
Students in Grades 4 and 8
Mead, N., Grigg, W., Moran, R., & Kuang,
M. (2010). National Indian Education Study
2009 - Part II: The Educational Experiences
of American Indian and Alaska Native
Students in Grades 4 and 8 (NCES 2010‑463).
Washington, DC: National Center for
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Education Statistics, Institute of Education
Sciences, U.S. Department of Education.
This report is the second from a study
designed to describe education for American
Indian and Alaska Native (AI/AN) students,
and it seeks to inform the reader of the
education experiences of 4th- and 8th-grade
indigenous students. The study utilizes
results from a sample of 22,000 students who
participated in the National Indian Education
Study in 2009. Data were also collected from
approximately 8,400 teachers who provided
information about their education practices
to promote academic achievement for
AI/AN students and from about 4,200 school
administrators who addressed questions
about school climate for this population.
Findings suggest that AI/AN students report
different levels of exposure to Native culture,
with students in Bureau of Indian Education
(BIE) schools reporting more exposure to
Native culture in the curriculum than
AI/AN students in public or private schools.
Additionally, 55 percent of 8th graders
attending BIE schools and 57 percent
attending public schools report that they
planned to attend college. From the teacher
survey, results suggest that at least 87 percent
of AI/AN students receive instruction in core
subjects exclusively in English. A highlighted
finding from school administrators is that
the highest proportion (i.e., more than
75 percent) of AI/AN teachers are teaching in
BIE schools rather than in public and private
schools. This comprehensive report provides
a wealth of information about AI/AN students
in the nation.
Available at http://nces.ed.gov/
nationsreportcard/pdf/studies/2010463.pdf
Culture and Language Revitalization for Native American Students
Research in American Indian and Alaska
Native Education: From Assimilation to
Self-Determination
Deyhle, D., & Swisher, K. (1997). Research
in American Indian and Alaska Native
education: From assimilation to selfdetermination. Review of Research in
Education, 22, 113–194.
The authors detail the many barriers
hindering the education of Native students,
including ongoing economic, social, and
health problems within Native communities;
unpredictable funding for K–12 schools
and higher education; schools that do
not promote academic, social, cultural,
and spiritual development among Native
students; and curricula that do not include
tribal history, culture, and language. The
authors state that in spite of enormous
adversity, American Indian and Alaska
Native people have been successful in the
development and operation of their own
schools and possess substantial knowledge
about effective practices.
literacy for American Indigenous youth on
the national and local levels. The authors
first describe research literature on the
impact of CRS. The methodologies being
used in this research include analyses of
national datasets with student achievement
outcomes, qualitative research studies, and
case studies of successful implementation
of CRS. To improve the educational
experiences of Indigenous youth, the authors
recommend that future policy and practice
include: diverse curricular materials that
are relevant to students’ lives; professional
development opportunities for educators
around their role in social change for greater
educational equity; alignment of state and
federal policies with tribal sovereignty; locally
developed educational and cultural standards
with corresponding assessments; and the
recruitment of indigenous teachers through
better collaboration between local schools
and tribal colleges.
Available for purchase at
http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/
full/10.1080/10476210802681709
Available at https://www.jstor.org/
stable/1167375?seq=1 - page_scan_tab_
contents
The Educational Aspirations/Attainment
Gap among Rural Alaska Native Students
Self-Determination through Self-Education:
Culturally Responsive Schooling for
Indigenous Students in the USA
Doyle, A., Kleinfeld, J., & Reyes, M. (2009).
The educational aspirations/attainment gap
among rural Alaska Native students. The
Rural Educator, 30(3), 25–33.
Brayboy, B. M. J., & Castagno, A. E.
(2009). Self-determination through selfeducation: Culturally responsive schooling
for Indigenous students in the USA. Teaching
Education, 20(1), 31–53.
This article describes culturally responsive
schooling (CRS) efforts designed to support
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This study sought to explain the factors that
deter students from achieving their goals for
postsecondary programs or employment.
Interviews with a sample of 49 grade-12
Alaska Native high school students,
conducted over the course of a year, were
used to examine education and occupational
Culture and Language Revitalization for Native American Students
goals and factors that influenced their plans.
Some students were classified as “drifting” if
they failed to pursue meaningful goals, while
others were considered “directed” if they
showed plans, means to attain goals, and/
or concrete action to accomplish objectives.
Most rural students were considered to be
drifting. The study includes two student case
studies and identification of several themes
that emerged from student interviews,
including indications that drifting students
had difficulty understanding how to obtain
goals, while directed students shared career
ambitions with peers. Factors that made a
difference in post–high school achievement
included direct follow-up (e.g., help with
filling out applications) and structured
pathways, such as the National Guard or
Alaska Scholars Program.
Available at http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/
EJ869312.pdf
The Influence of Culture on Learning
and Assessment among Native American
Students
Demmert, W. G., Jr. (2005). The influence of
culture on learning and assessment among
Native American students. Learning Disabilities
Research and Practice, 20 (1), 16–23.
This article examines the influence of Native
American culture on learning and assessment.
The issue is explored through cultural aspects
of practices and principles of learning and
assessment. Analysis of data from the Early
Childhood Longitudinal Survey (ECLS) and
the National Assessment of Educational
Progress data (NAEP) demonstrate that
18 / WEST COMPREHENSIVE CENTER
Native American students perform worse
than white students in many content areas.
However, the author suggests that these tests
are not designed with cultural sensitivity to
the types of questions and knowledge valued
in cultures such as those of Native American
youth. The author concludes by suggesting
that culture, environment, attitudes, context,
and perspectives of Native American and
other minority students must be examined
in order to guide consideration of culturally
sensitive assessment.
Available at http://blogs.ubc.ca/dryan/
files/2008/10/fulltext.pdf
Traditional Culture and Academic Success
among American Indian Children in the
Upper Midwest
Whitbeck, L. B., Hoyt, D. R., Stubben, J. D.,
& LaFramboise, T. (2001). Traditional culture
and academic success among American
Indian children in the upper Midwest. Journal
of American Indian Education, 40(2), 48–60.
This article identifies factors related to school
success for a sample of 196 American Indian
children in grades 5 through 8 from three
reservations in the upper Midwest. The
regression model used to identify effective
practices included age, gender, family
structure, parent occupation and income,
maternal warmth, extracurricular activities,
enculturation, and self-esteem. The results
indicate that traditional culture positively
affects the academic performance of students
in grades 5 through 8 and helps to support
the resiliency and well-being of American
Indian children.
Culture and Language Revitalization for Native American Students
Virtual Museum Projects for Culturally
Responsive Teaching in American Indian
Education
Christal, M. A. (2003). Virtual museum
projects for culturally responsive teaching
in American Indian education [Doctoral
dissertation]. University of Texas, Austin.
This study examines the contributions
of virtual museum projects to culturally
responsive teaching practices. Four case
studies were conducted to document
partnerships between American Indian
schools controlled by the tribes and Native
19 / WEST COMPREHENSIVE CENTER
American museum collections. In these
partnerships, Native American high school
students worked with community members
to create a virtual exhibit, using technology,
history of the pieces, and essays about the
objects. The researcher conducted interviews,
videotaped activities, and performed
document analysis. Results suggest that the
virtual museum projects worked to affirm
culture, understanding of place in the world,
collaboration, hands-on experience, object
aspects, and student independence.
Available at http://www.lib.utexas.edu/
etd/d/2003/christalma032/christalma032.pdf
Culture and Language Revitalization for Native American Students
Early Childhood Education
A Summary of Research and Publications
on Early Childhood for American Indian
and Alaska Native Children
Marks, E. L., Moyer, M. K., Roche, M., &
Graham, E. T. (2003). A summary of research
and publications on early childhood for
American Indian and Alaska Native children.
Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health
and Human Services.
This report is the culmination of an effort
launched by the Federal Administration
for Children and Families (ACF) to review
existing information and explore research
needs for Head Start programs that serve
American Indian/Alaska Native (AI/AN)
populations. Information is organized in
two parts. The first part summarizes issues
and observations from position papers,
opinions, experiences, and syntheses; the
second part presents information from
research studies. Topics include culturally
appropriate curricula and practice, language
and literacy acquisition, teacher training
and professional development, parent
involvement, assessment tools and practices,
health and physical well-being, mental
health, and conducting research. The report
suggests that additional training for teachers
of AI/AN children is critical. The section on
parent involvement highlights barriers to
involvement that parents may experience,
such as alienation, lack of cultural awareness,
and lack of parent education programs. The
section on assessment tools being used
with AI/AN students suggests that current
assessments may be biased or inadequate
20 / WEST COMPREHENSIVE CENTER
measures with these youth. The health and
physical well-being section highlights the
health disparities experienced by AI/AN
youth compared to other youth. The mental
health section focuses on the need for more
research in this area because AI/AN youth
face mental health issues. The authors believe
that future research should focus on the
strengths of AI/AN children and on examining
the institutions and practices that serve
AI/AN children. This report concludes by
emphasizing that the field of early childhood
education for AI/AN is understudied and
that there is a need for more systematic and
substantial research in this area.
Available at http://www.acf.hhs.gov/
programs/opre/resource/a-summaryof-research-and-publications-on-earlychildhood-for-american
An Investigation of How Culture Shapes
Curriculum in Early Care and Education
Programs on a Native American Indian
Reservation
Gilliard, J. L., & Moore, R. A. (2007).
An investigation of how culture shapes
curriculum in early care and education
programs on a Native American Indian
reservation. Early Childhood Education
Journal, 34(4), 251–254.
This article explores the ways in which culture
shapes instruction in three early care and
education programs on the Flathead Indian
Reservation. Interviews were conducted
with eight early childhood teachers, along
Culture and Language Revitalization for Native American Students
with classroom observations, to learn how
the culture of the family and community
shape curriculum. Results of data analysis
suggested that ongoing communication
with parents and community about teaching
within a culturally relevant context, building a
sense of belonging and community through
ritual, and respecting children, families, and
community were essential to defining the
Native American Indian culture within these
early learning programs.
Available for purchase at http://link.springer.
com/journal/10643/34/4/page/1
Dear Children: Preferred Preparation for
Native Early Childhood Education
CHiXapkaid (Pavel, M.), Strong, Z. H., Dolata,
J., & Baker, A. (2014). Dear children: Preferred
preparation for Native early childhood
education. Seattle, WA: Thrive by Five (now
Thrive).
Undertaken to support partnerships and
collaboration within the state of Washington
on behalf of Native children, this study
illustrates ways to support Native teachers
in the classroom and to establish Native
language, culture, and oral traditions as
a preferred means of preparing the next
generation of early childhood educators.
Recommendations from the study include:
(1) leaders should learn from the existing
research literature about the incorporation of
Native language, culture, and oral traditions
into early childhood education; (2) the state
should create statewide presentations on
early learning efforts for Native children;
(3) the state should provide professional
development to teachers on the preservation
and enhancement of tribal language and
21 / WEST COMPREHENSIVE CENTER
culture in early learning; (4) the state
should develop appropriate coursework for
educators in early childhood education; and
(5) the state should share stories of success
in the education of young children in Native
communities, to inspire collaborations
between schools and tribes.
Available at https://thrivewa.org/wp-content/
uploads/Dear_Children_Final_Report.pdf
For Each and Every Child: A Strategy for
Education Equity and Excellence
U.S. Department of Education, Equity and
Excellence Commission. (2013). For each
and every child: A strategy for education
equity and excellence. Washington, DC:
Government Printing Office.
This report from the Equity and Excellence
Commission, a federal advisory committee
chartered by Congress, was developed
to provide advice to the Secretary of the
U.S. Department of Education on ways
in which federal policies could address
disparities in education opportunities that
give rise to achievement gaps. One chapter
of the report addresses the need to ensure
access to high-quality early childhood
education. Universal access to high-quality
early learning programs is noted as a matter
of the highest national priority, with a special
priority for children in the country’s poorest
communities. In addition, the authors
recommend that the Bureau of Indian
Education work to expand access to full-day
kindergarten programs for students from lowincome backgrounds.
Available at http://www2.ed.gov/about/
bdscomm/list/eec/equity-excellencecommission-report.pdf
Culture and Language Revitalization for Native American Students
Improving Academic Performance among
Native American Students — A Review of
the Research Literature
Demmert, W. G., Jr. (2001). Improving
academic performance among Native
American students — A review of the research
literature. Charleston, WV: ERIC Clearinghouse
on Rural Education and Small Schools.
This comprehensive literature review
identifies research projects with information
on factors and programs associated with
improved academic performance of Native
students. One section covers early childhood
environment and experiences. Research
findings underscore the importance of early
childhood education programs for parents to
help them understand ways to support their
children’s improved cognition and academic
performance; the need for more Native
teachers and culture-based curricula; and the
strong links between cognitive development
resulting from a challenging and stimulating
environment for young children and later
achievement in a formal setting.
Available at http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/
ERIC-ED463917/pdf/ERIC-ED463917.pdf
Proceedings of the Rural Early Childhood
Forum on American Indian and Alaska
Native Early Learning
National Center for Rural Early Childhood
Learning Initiatives. (2006). Proceedings of
the Rural Early Childhood Forum on American
Indian and Alaska Native Early Learning,
July 28–29, 2005, Little Rock, AR (Rural
Early Childhood Report No. 2). Mississippi
State, MS: Mississippi State University Early
Childhood Institute.
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This volume provides a collection of papers
that were presented at the Rural Early
Childhood Forum on American Indian and
Alaska Native Early Learning by experts in the
field (e.g., academic researchers and faculty,
Native educators, early childhood education
specialists, community leaders). The
National Center for Rural Early Childhood
Learning Initiatives, known as Rural Early
Childhood, Pennsylvania State University’s
American Indian Leadership Program), and
the university’s Center for Rural Education
and Communities held this forum to address
research needs and gaps with regard to
Native American early childhood education
and education leadership. Specifically, the
purpose of this volume was to assess the
current state of rural Indian early childhood
education, with an emphasis on the years
prior to formal school entry, as well as
education leadership as it pertains to rural
Indian early childhood education. The
papers and reviews in this volume include:
(1) Early childhood educational opportunities
for American Indian and Alaska Native
children and families; (2) The health and
development of American Indian and Alaska
Native children in relationship to reservation
and rural/urban residence; (3) Effective
early education programs that promote
the learning of English language and tribal
languages and cultures; (4) Transitions of
American Indian and Alaska Native children
pre-school to kindergarten; (5) American
Indian and Alaska Native school readiness;
(6) Young American Indian/Alaskan Native
Children with disabilities: Implications for
policy, research, and practice; (7) American
Indian and Alaska Native early childhood
family involvement: A review of the literature;
and (8) School leaders. This volume
Culture and Language Revitalization for Native American Students
summarizes the state of knowledge regarding
rural early childhood education of Native
youth. The authors conclude that there is
a lack of research in all areas of American
Indian and Alaska Native early care and
education and, as a result, more research,
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especially culturally sensitive research, is
needed. The authors argue that research
should not be conducted on Native people,
but rather with Native people.
Available at http://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED498834
Culture and Language Revitalization for Native American Students
Family and Community
Involvement/Engagement
A Native American Community’s
Involvement and Empowerment to Guide
Their Children’s Development in the
School Setting
Rivera, H. H., & Tharp, R. G. (2006). A Native
American community’s involvement and
empowerment to guide their children’s
development in the school setting. Journal of
Community Psychology, 34(4), 435–451.
This study provides an empirical description
of the dimensions of community values,
beliefs, and opinions through a survey
conducted in the Pueblo Indian community
of Zuni in New Mexico. The sample was
composed of 200 randomly chosen
community members ranging in age from
21 to 103 years. A principal component
factor analysis was conducted, as well
as a multivariate analysis of variance, to
explore gender, age, education, language,
and socioeconomic (SES) differences
on values, beliefs, and opinions from
survey participants. Findings suggest a
strong agreement by the community on
the direction to be taken by their school
district in their efforts to improve classroom
instruction, as well as in their efforts to
guide their children’s development as Native
Americans. Stakeholders recommended the
following strategies: (1) promote contextual
and meaningful instruction in the classroom
and involve Zuni community and noncommunity members in community activities;
(2) empower community members; and (3)
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combine Zuni cultural practices with the
teaching of the Zuni language.
Available for purchase at http://onlinelibrary.
wiley.com/doi/10.1002/jcop.20108/abstract
Examining American Indian Perspectives
in the Central Region on Parent
Involvement in Children’s Education
Mackety, D. M., & Linder-VanBerschot,
J. A. (2008). Examining American Indian
perspectives in the central region on parent
involvement in children’s education (Issues
& Answers Report, REL 2008-No. 059).
Washington, DC: Department of Education,
Institute of Education Sciences, National
Center for Education Evaluation and Regional
Assistance.
This study examines American Indian parents’
perceptions of parent involvement in their
children’s education and factors that may
encourage or discourage involvement.
This report was organized around the
following research questions: (1) What do
American Indian parents perceive as parent
involvement in their children’s education,
(2) Why do American Indian parents get
involved, (3) What do parents perceive as
barriers to involvement, and (4) What school
strategies do parents perceive encourage
involvement? Qualitative data were collected
from two central region communities via five
focus groups (N = 47). This study found that
greater parental involvement was encouraged
Culture and Language Revitalization for Native American Students
by such factors as a caring, supportive, and
communicative school staff and a culturally
respectful environment; access to American
Indian programs, resource centers, after
school activities and clubs; and the presence
of an advocate or liaison in each school.
Available at http://ies.ed.gov/ncee/edlabs/
regions/central/pdf/REL_2008059_sum.pdf
Factors Influencing Transition for
Students with Disabilities: The American
Indian Experience
Applequist, K., Mears, R., & Loyless, R.
(2009). Factors influencing transition for
students with disabilities: The American
Indian experience. International Journal of
Special Education, 24(3), 45–56.
This study explored factors influencing the
successful transition of American Indian
students with mild to moderate disabilities to
postsecondary academic settings and other
lifelong learning opportunities. Thirty‑five
individuals from three Southwestern
tribes were interviewed about personal
factors during transition, as well as about
secondary and postsecondary experiences.
Approximately two years later, a second
interview was conducted with 14 participants
to follow up on the progress of those
individuals after transition. Participants
emphasized the importance of family
and religion in their lives throughout the
transition process. Those participating in
both interviews showed statistically significant
positive changes in self-ratings of dimensions
of self-advocacy and self-determination.
Available for purchase at http://eric.
ed.gov/?id=EJ877922
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Families and Schools Together:
An Experimental Analysis of a ParentMediated Multi-Family Group Program
for American Indian Children
Kratochwill, T. R., McDonald, L., Levin, J. R.,
Bear-Tibbetts, H. Y., & Demaray, M. K.
(2004). Families and schools together: An
experimental analysis of a parent-mediated
multi-family group program for American
Indian children. Journal of School Psychology,
42(5), 359–383.
The goals of this study were to assess the
extent to which participation in the multifamily group program called Families
and Schools Together (FAST) resulted in
increased academic performance among
American Indian children ages 4–9 years
and reduced problem behaviors in the
classroom. In collaboration with the
College of Menominee Nation, this parent
intervention approach was adapted in three
American Indian Nations in Wisconsin to
express tribal values while maintaining its
core components. Fifty pairs of recruited
American Indian students at three schools
were assessed, matched on five variables,
and then randomly assigned to either the
FAST or non-FAST control condition. Over
three years, seven multi-family group cycles
of FAST were implemented, each lasting
eight weeks. Pretest, posttest, and 9- to
12-month follow-up data were collected
by American Indian staff and university
students on multiple indicators of academic
and behavioral performance. Of the
50 families that attended FAST meetings at
least once, 40 (80 percent) graduated from
the seven FAST cycles. On the immediate
posttest, statistically significant differences
in improvement favoring FAST participants
Culture and Language Revitalization for Native American Students
were found on the Aggressive Behavior scale
of the teacher-rated Child Behavior Checklist
(CBCL) and on the parent-rated Withdrawn
scale of the same instrument. On the
one-year follow-up assessment, parent CBCL
ratings indicated that FAST students were less
socially withdrawn, and teacher ratings on the
Social Skills Rating Scale (SSRS) revealed that
FAST participants had exhibited relatively
greater improvement in their academic
competence. Parent surveys of the graduated
students generally showed satisfaction with
the program.
adversity households. Findings from these
analyses identified key risk and protective
factors regarding the resilience of American
Indian adolescents in the study. Perceived
discrimination was identified as a primary
risk factor while the influence of family,
community, and culture served as protective
factors. Having a warm and supportive
mother, perceived community support, and
higher levels of enculturation were associated
with increased likelihood of prosocial
outcomes. Youth self-esteem was not
associated with resilience outcomes.
Available for purchase at http://www.
sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/
S0022440504000664
Available at http://digitalcommons.
unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.
cgi?article=1025&context=sociologyfacpub
Family, Community, and School Influences
on Resilience among American Indian
Adolescents in the Upper Midwest
Home-Going as a Strategy for Success
among Haudenosaunee College and
University Students
LaFromboise, T. D., Hoyt, D. R., Oliver, L., &
Whitbeck, L. B. (2006). Family, community,
and school influences on resilience among
American Indian adolescents in the upper
Midwest. Journal of Community Psychology,
34(2), 193–209.
Waterman, S. J. (2012). Home-going as a
strategy for success among Haudenosaunee
college and university students. Journal of
Student Affairs Research and Practice, 49(2),
193–209.
This research examined resilience among
a sample of 212 American Indian youth
(115 boys and 97 girls) in fifth through eighth
grades living on or near reservations in the
upper Midwest. This study utilized a latent
class analysis method to identify youth with
prosocial outcomes (60.5 percent) and lowadversity households (38.4 percent). The
authors defined resilience in the context of
positive outcomes in the face of adversity
and applied logistic regression to examine
the predictors of prosocial behavior among
youth who lived in moderate- to high-
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This study focused on home-going as a
strategy for success among Haudenosaunee
(Iroquois) college graduates living in residence
halls while enrolled in college. The sample
of 54 students obtained a college education
while remaining culturally centered and
connected to their families through frequent
visits home. Findings from this qualitative
study suggest that Native American students
find strength in their families, communities,
and culture, and home-going is a positive
strategy for college success among these
university students. The author concludes that
by Haudenosaunee students returning home,
Culture and Language Revitalization for Native American Students
they are able to continue their connection to
family and community while sustaining their
cultural integrity.
Available for purchase at http://www.
degruyter.com/view/j/jsarp.2012.49.issue2/1949-6605.6378/1949-6605.6378.xml
“My Culture, My Family, My School, Me”:
Identifying Strengths and Challenges in
the Lives and Communities of American
Indian Youth
McMahon, T. R., Kenyon, D. B., & Carter, J. S.
(2013). “My culture, my family, my school,
me”: Identifying strengths and challenges in
the lives and communities of American Indian
youth. Journal of Child and Family Studies,
22(5), 694–706.
This study examined the ways in which
community assets and community challenges
are related to personal strengths and
challenges in the lives of American Indian
youth. A sample of 95 reservation-based,
Northern plains youth between the ages of
14 and 20 (37 males, 58 females) participated
in this study. Qualitative data were collected
from four open-ended survey questions.
Findings suggested that sources of strength
for American Indian students include their
families (58.9 percent), their friends/significant
other (36.8 percent), the students themselves
(24.2 percent), extracurricular activities/jobs
(23.2 percent), and schools (23.2 percent).
The authors argue that the findings are
consistent with American Indian traditional
values of collectivism and community. When
Native youth were asked what, if anything,
they would change about their lives, most
responded that they would not change
anything (32.6 percent), followed by the
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choices they made (23.2 percent), schoolrelated choices (14.7 percent), substance
abuse (12.6 percent), and living situation/
environment (12.6 percent). Native youth also
reported the following community strengths:
people/atmosphere (43.8 percent), facilities/
resources/activities (22.5 percent), culture/
traditions (19.1 percent), location/environment
(14.6 percent), and nothing (9.0 percent).
Native youth reported aspects of their
community that needed to be changed,
such as substance abuse (20.0 percent),
appearance/environment (17.8 percent),
nothing (16.7 percent), lack of support
(15.6 percent), and people (14.7 percent). The
authors discuss the implications of this study
and recommend using a strengths-based
approach in the development of programs
intended to reduce the challenges in the lives
of American Indian youth.
Available for purchase at http://link.springer.
com/article/10.1007%2Fs10826-012-9623-z
Navajo Culture and Family Influences on
Academic Success: Traditionalism Is Not
a Significant Predictor of Achievement
among Navajo Youth
Willeto, A. A. A. (1999). Navajo culture and
family influences on academic success:
Traditionalism is not a significant predictor of
achievement among Navajo youth. Journal of
American Indian Education, 38(2), 1–24.
This study examined the impact of
traditionalism as a predictor of achievement
among Navajo youth. A field study was
conducted with a sample of 451 young
Navajos. Results indicated there may be no
relationship between academic achievement
and the behavior of these Navajos in relation
Culture and Language Revitalization for Native American Students
to Navajo culture. Findings suggested that
youth participation in ritual activities, cultural
conventions, and language did not predict
their education failure or disengagement
from school. However, the family was found
to affect academic performance and goals, as
was gender. The author suggests that the role
of tribal culture in the education of American
Indian youths may need more study.
Reforming Education from the InsideOut: A Study of Community Engagement
and Educational Reform in Rural Alaska
Kushman, J. W., & Barnhardt, R. (2001).
Reforming education from the inside-out:
A study of community engagement and
educational reform in rural Alaska. Journal of
Research in Rural Education, 17(1), 12–26.
This study examined school reform strategies
in seven rural Alaskan communities. The
reform effort, called Alaska Onward to
Excellence (AOTE), was designed to increase
community engagement and parental
involvement. The researchers aspired to
answer two questions: (1) What does it take
for school and communities to work together
successfully to achieve common goals
for Alaska Native students? and (2) What
factors help promote school-community
partnerships in rural settings? A participatory
action research approach was used to
answer these questions. The four major
findings were: (1) educators must create a
trusting relationship with the community
before the reform effort; (2) parents need to
expand the vision of their roles to include
active participation in school life; (3) shared
leadership between educators, parents, and
the community is necessary for a successful
reform; and (4) education in Alaska is
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expected to include cultural standards. This
project illuminates the importance of families,
communities, and schools coming together
to create a shared vision of success for
Native youth.
Available at http://www.ankn.uaf.edu/
Curriculum/Articles/RayBarnhardt/
ReformingEd.html
Supporting American Indian Students
in the Transition to Postsecondary
Education
Bosse, S. A., Duncan, K., Gapp, S. C.,
& Newland, L. A. (2011). Supporting
American Indian students in the transition
to postsecondary education. Journal of
The First-Year Experience and Students in
Transition, 23(2), 33–51.
This qualitative study examined the factors
that may promote successful transition
into and through postsecondary education
among American Indian students. Interview
data were collected from students who had
completed postsecondary education as
well as from school counselors and college
advisors. A phenomenological approach was
utilized that focused on significant statements
and themes from the interviews. Findings
from this study revealed that the following
factors contributed to the successful
transition of American Indian students
in postsecondary education: (1) strong
academic preparation; (2) motivation and selfconfidence; (3) family support; (4) ongoing
relations with culturally sensitive faculty
members and advisors; (5) strong connections
with culturally relevant peer groups; and (6) a
clear focus on the future. The authors provide
a conceptual model for assisting American
Culture and Language Revitalization for Native American Students
Indian students in their transition to higher
education that focuses on family and student
needs and strengths, education setting, staff
and resources, and peer and social resources.
Student empowerment is seen as being
enhanced through respectful support, cultural
identity, and national context.
Available at http://www.se.edu/dept/nativeamerican-center/files/2012/04/SupportingNative-American-Students-Transition.pdf
Supporting Native Indian Preschoolers
and Their Families: Family-SchoolCommunity Partnerships
McWilliams, S. M., Maldonado-Mancebo, T.,
Szczepaniak, P. S., & Jones, J. (2011).
Supporting Native Indian preschoolers and
their families: Family-school-community
partnerships. Young Children, 66(6), 34–41.
This case study describes a multigenerational
program in which Native Indian students
pre-K through grade 12 attend four meetings
a year hosted by the Native Indian Centered
Education (NICE) program. This program is
funded by a U.S. Department of Education
Experimental Education grant. The purpose
of this program is to address the achievement
gap between children in low-income
minority communities and other student
subpopulations. This article describes the
program and the ways in which family, school,
and community partnerships are formed on
an ongoing basis as a result of NICE. Families
become engaged in the program in a number
of ways: parent-child classroom interactions
involving culturally relevant arts, crafts,
and literacy activities; districtwide Native
family nights that encourage community
fellowship; school gardens that invite the
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participation of all family members in the
preparation, planting, and tending of plants;
an annual harvest celebration and powwow
that includes extended family members;
and inclusion of family members, including
parents, grandparents, and older siblings, as
classroom volunteers. The NICE preschool
has increased the rate of family participation
and helped more Native American families
enroll their children in preschool settings.
Thirty-two Native children were enrolled
in district preschools as compared to the
average of three to five children enrolled in
the previous years.
Available at http://www.naeyc.org/files/yc/
file/201111/McWilliams_Family_-_School_-_
Community_Partnerships_Online%201111.
pdf
The Context and Meaning of Family
Strengthening in Indian America
Besaw, A., Kalt, J. P., Lee, A., Sethi, J.,
& Wilson, J. B. (2004). The context and
meaning of family strengthening in Indian
America. Baltimore, MD: Annie E. Casey
Foundation.
This review was commissioned by the Annie
E. Casey Foundation and conducted by the
Harvard Project on American Indian Economic
Development. The purpose was to define and
understand the forces that affect American
Indian families and children, focusing on the
actors and activities (e.g., tribal governments,
non-tribal governments, Native NGOs, nonNative NGOs, philanthropic foundations)
that address the needs of this group. This
report covers five key areas related to family
strengthening in Indian America: (1) the state
of children, families, and communities in
Culture and Language Revitalization for Native American Students
Indian America; (2) case studies in effective
family strengthening; (3) a framework
for understanding family strengthening;
(4) observations on effective family
strengthening; and (5) recommendations to
the philanthropic community. The authors
made the following six recommendations:
(1) embrace self-determination as the
overarching theme of current and future
efforts to strengthen families in Indian
America; (2) be flexible in grant-making,
recognizing that there is great diversity
of context and need throughout Indian
America; (3) work with the relevant actors and
institutions, not just the easiest to fund or
most well-connected; (4) foster connections
within and across sectors; (5) strengthen
institutions, especially among tribal
governments and Native nonprofits; and
(6) institutionalize American Indian related
grant-making.
Available at http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/
ED485942.pdf
The Traditional Tribal Values of Ojibwa
Parents and the School Performance of
Their Children: An Exploratory Study
Coggins, K., Radin, N., & Williams, E. (1996).
The traditional tribal values of Ojibwa parents
and the school performance of their children:
An exploratory study. Ann Arbor, MI:
University of Michigan.
This study examined the traditional tribal
values of Ojibwa parents and the school
performance of their children, using a
qualitative research method. The sample
consisted of 19 northern Michigan Ojibwa
families: 15 mothers and 14 fathers with
children between the ages of 3 and 11.
The authors examined the extent to which
mothers' and fathers’ traditional value scores
predicted child GPA and social functioning
as measured by school performance and
learning items from the Achenbach’s
Teacher’s Report Form of Child Behavior
Checklist (Achenbach & Edlebrock, 1986).
Findings from this study suggest that a
mother’s traditional values, but not the
father’s, predicted academic and social
performance in school.
Available at http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/
ED400116.pdf
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Culture and Language Revitalization for Native American Students
Language Revitalization and
Immersion Efforts
Grassroots Suggestions for Linking NativeLanguage Learning, Native American
Studies, and Mainstream Education in
Reservation Schools with Mixed Indian
and White Student Populations
Ngai, P. B. (2006). Grassroots suggestions
for linking Native-language learning, Native
American studies, and mainstream education
in reservation schools with mixed Indian
and white student populations. Language,
Culture, and Curriculum, 19(2), 220–236.
In 2002 and 2003, the researcher conducted
interviews with 89 individuals on the
Flathead Indian Reservation, located in
western Montana, as part of a study related
to language revitalization. The purpose
was to identify ways to create a preK–16
Native language curriculum in rural and
small-town communities on the reservation
with a mixture of Native and non-Native
populations. The curriculum was intended to
create connections across Indian language
education programs, between Indian
language classrooms and mainstream
classrooms, and between Indian language
education and Native American Studies.
Findings from interviews suggested that
prospects for long-term survival of Native
languages are enhanced when language
education is perceived as beneficial to most
or all members of mixed-race communities
and when indigenous language learning
is set within a framework of place-based
multicultural education.
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Available for purchase at http://rer.sagepub.
com/content/78/4/941
Indigenous Language Revitalization:
Encouragement, Guidance, & Lessons
Learned
Reyhner, J., & Lockard, L. (Eds.). (2009).
Indigenous language revitalization:
Encouragement, guidance, & lessons learned.
Flagstaff, AZ: Northern Arizona University.
Based on presentations delivered at the
14th and 15th annual Stabilizing Indigenous
Languages conferences, this book
describes effective approaches to language
revitalization and language immersion.
Among the papers presented in this book
is a profile of the Cuts Wood School in
Montana, which is a nationally recognized
model for Native language immersion with
a multi-generational approach. Other essays
include an analysis of how linguists and
language activists can cooperate in language
revitalization efforts; efforts of Hawaiians
to make their language vital in the modern
world; outreach strategies used by Native
Hawaiians to help Alaska Natives in their
language revitalization efforts; and the uses
of technology in language revitalization.
A final section deals with the assessment of
language revitalization efforts.
Available for purchase at http://jan.ucc.nau.
edu/~jar/ILR/
Culture and Language Revitalization for Native American Students
Language and Tribal Sovereignty: Whose
Language Is It Anyway?
types of methodology used to promote
Martinez, R. B. (2000). Language and tribal
sovereignty: Whose language is it anyway?
Theory into Practice, 39(4), 211–219.
and universities in promoting language
With the help of bilingual teachers, the
Tampa School District of Northern New
Mexico attempted to establish a PuebloEnglish bilingual program based on the
model of Spanish-English bilingual programs.
However, members of the Pueblo Indian
community angrily rejected this idea. The
case study explores how the bilingual
teachers and the school district failed to
understand the role and sovereignty of the
Pueblo language from the perspective of the
Pueblo people.
Available for purchase at http://www.
tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1207/
s15430421tip3904_4#.VB93B150zIU
Native Language Immersion: Innovative
Native Education for Children and
Families
Pease-Pretty On Top, J. (n.d.). Native
Language immersion: Innovative Native
education for children and families. Denver,
CO: American Indian College Fund.
A project of the American Indian College
Fund and supported by the W. K. Kellogg
Foundation, this study examines Native
American language immersion schools
and projects throughout the country. The
author describes Native American language
immersion as being characterized by Native
ways of knowing, learning, and indigenous
knowledge. The study reviews compelling
reasons for language immersion, the
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language learning, the role of tribal colleges
immersion, challenges associated with
immersion programs and activities, funding
issues, and successful indigenous models.
For the purposes of this study, 10 of 50
language immersion schools (e.g., Piegan
Institute in Browning, Montana, and Rough
Rock Community School in Rough Rock,
Arizona) were reviewed. The author describes
the three Native American language
immersion approaches utilized in these
schools: (1) traditional grandparents (i.e.,
elders and fluent tribal members are primary
instructors); (2) Montessori method (i.e., using
“interest islands” to provide students with
a tribal knowledge base and culturally rich
resources); and (3) total physical responses
(i.e., progressive learning approach that
involves scaffolding). The author describes a
number of examples (e.g., Inupiaq Immersion
School of Kotzebue, Alaska, Fort Berthold
Community College, Tribal Language Mentor
Program, Chief Dull Knife College, Northern
Cheyenne Language Immersion Camp) that
represent year-round schools, summer and
seasonal camps, weekend retreats, and
seminars. At the conclusion of this book,
the author argues that there is a positive
relationship between Native and indigenous
language and culture, and education
achievement. Furthermore, the author
emphasizes that Native language immersion
programs provide a source of hope for
children and families.
Available at http://www.collegefund.org/
userfiles/file/ImmersionBook.pdf
Culture and Language Revitalization for Native American Students
Native Language Renewal: Dispelling the
Myths, Planning for the Future
Ayoungman, V. (1995). Native language
renewal: Dispelling the myths, planning for
the future. Bilingual Research Journal, 19(1),
183–187.
The article examines the misunderstandings
surrounding the introduction of Native
language instruction in American Indian
communities. Despite the concerns of many
parents, research indicates that Native
language instruction encourages students
to succeed in school. Parent-community
involvement is essential for revealing the
importance of language instruction and
reinforcing the Native language at home.
Available for purchase at http://www.
tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/15235882.
1995.10668598#.VB-sC150zIU
Reclaiming Indigenous Languages:
A Reconsideration of the Roles and
Responsibilities of Schools
McCarty, T. L., & Nicholas, S. E. (2014).
Reclaiming Indigenous languages:
A reconsideration of the roles and
responsibilities of schools. Review of
Research in Education, 38, 106–136.
This review examines the roles that schools
have played in reclaiming and revitalizing
threatened indigenous languages, including
approaches that have been successful, as well
as pitfalls and challenges associated with the
implementation process. The article focuses
on school efforts in the United States and
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Canada. Four brief case studies of Native
communities — Mohawk in Canada and the
United States, Hawaiian in the Pacific, and
Hopi and Navajo in the American Southwest
— are used as examples of the ways in
which language reclamation is developed in
different settings. Stakeholders, goals, and
impacts of language reclamation projects are
explored in each location.
Available for purchase at http://rre.sagepub.
com/content/38/1/106.full.pdf
Revitalising Indigenous Languages in
Homogenising Times
McCarty, T. L. (2003). Revitalising Indigenous
languages in homogenising times.
Comparative Education, 39(2), 147–163.
The article describes efforts to counter
the decline of Native languages and to
preserve linguistic and cultural diversity
through the creation of new approaches
to indigenous schooling that emphasize
immersion in the heritage language. Data
from American Indian language immersion
programs in three different communities —
one Navajo, one Native Hawaiian, and one
Keres (in the Acoma and Cochiti Pueblos of
New Mexico) — combined with data from a
national research project conducted by the
University of Arizona suggest that effective
immersion programs can both support
students’ academic success and promote the
revitalization of endangered languages.
Available for purchase at http://www.jstor.
org/stable/3099876?seq=1#page_scan_tab_
contents
Culture and Language Revitalization for Native American Students
Schooling for Self-Determination:
Research on the Effects of Including
Native Language and Culture in
the Schools
The Atse Kituwah Academy:
An Immersion Model That Holds the Key
to the Future of the Cherokee Language
and Culture
Lipka, J. (2002). Schooling for selfdetermination: Research on the effects of
including Native language and culture in the
schools (ERIC #459989). Charleston, WV:
ERIC Clearinghouse on Rural Education and
Small Schools.
Redmond, M., & Wiethaus, U. (2009). The
Atse Kituwah Academy: An immersion
model that holds the key to the future of the
Cherokee language and culture. Learning
Languages, 15(1), 34–37.
The ERIC Digest briefly reviews the
education effects of forced assimilationist
schooling and later efforts to create schools
supportive of American Indian/Native Alaska
self-determination. The article provides
examples of tribally or community controlled
education programs that use students’ Native
language as the language of instruction
in at least some classes and incorporate
traditional culture into the curriculum.
Exemplary programs cited are schools in
Rock Point, Arizona, which teach all classes
in the local Navajo language; schools in
Fort Defiance, Arizona, which offer the
option of being taught with Navajo as the
language of instruction; the Kamehameha
Early Learning Project in Honolulu, Hawaii,
which uses an experimental mathematics
curriculum based on the ways that Native
Hawaiian children develop mathematical
knowledge in everyday life; and the Kativik
schools in Northern Quebec, Canada,
which involve Inuit students in an Inuktitut
language program.
Available at https://www.uaf.edu/files/mcc/
Articles/schooling-for-self-determination.pdf
A comprehensive study of the health of the
Cherokee language conducted in 2005 with
members of the Eastern Band of Cherokee
Indians in North Carolina revealed that only
about 420 out of a population of 10,000 tribal
members were fluent speakers. Of those,
almost three fourths (72 percent) were older
than 51. The study concluded that, without
intervention, there would be no more fluent
speakers once these individuals passed away.
Two years after publication of that study, the
Kituwah Language Revitalization Initiative
was begun to guide a comprehensive
effort to save and revitalize the Cherokee
language. An immersion school became the
key component of the Kituwah Initiative,
supported by the tribal government and
augmented by programs to re-establish the
usage of Cherokee in local media and the
community at large. In addition to supporting
the Atse Kituwah Academy, the Eastern Band
of Cherokee Indians created a partnership
with a local university to create teacher
licensure programs for language teachers,
through university courses and internships.
The university partnership includes language
revitalization research and scholarship.
Available at http://pieducators.com/sites/
default/files/Cherokee-Immersion.pdf
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Culture and Language Revitalization for Native American Students
State of the Field: The Role of Native
Languages and Cultures in American
Indian, Alaska Native, and Native
Hawaiian Student Achievement
McCarty, T. L. (2011, July). State of the field:
The role of Native languages and cultures in
American Indian, Alaska Native, and Native
Hawaiian student achievement. Tempe:
Arizona State University Center for Indian
Education.
This policy brief examines evidence for
the role and impact of Native language
and cultural instruction in the education
of American Indian, Alaska Native, and
Native Hawaiian students. The document
defines key terms related to language
and culture, explores promising practices
for indigenous students from a variety of
linguistic and cultural backgrounds, and
provides a summary of findings, including
characteristics of “strong” language and
culture programs. The author concludes that
(1) there is compelling empirical evidence
that strong, additive, academically rigorous
Native language and culture programs have
salutary effects on both Native language
and culture maintenance/revitalization
and student achievement, as measured by
multiple types of assessments; (2) regardless
of students’ Native-language expertise on
35 / WEST COMPREHENSIVE CENTER
entering programs characterized as “strong,”
time spent learning the Native language is
not time lost in developing academic English;
(3) it takes a minimum of four to seven years
for students to develop age-appropriate
academic proficiency in a lesser-used
language (English or the Native/heritage
language); (4) strong Native language and
culture (NLC) programs enhance student
motivation, self-esteem, and ethnic pride;
(5) strong programs offer unique and varied
opportunities to involve parents and elders
in children’s learning; (6) strong programs
are characterized by strong investments
in teachers’ professional development
and community intellectual resources, as
evidenced by “grow your own” approaches
to Native teacher preparation and curriculum
development; and (7) the effectiveness of
strong NLC programs (i.e., their ability to
achieve their goals) rests on the ability of
tribes and Native communities to exercise
self-determination in the content, process,
and medium of instruction.
Available at https://static1.squarespace.com/
static/52cf1070e4b048ae22d972b2/t/54aac6
b3e4b0c309d027948a/1420478131256/
McCarty+(2011).+Role+and+Impact+of+
Native+Languages+and+Cultural+Context.
pdf
Culture and Language Revitalization for Native American Students
Mentoring and Peer Tutoring
Mentored Research in a Tribal College
Setting: The Northern Cheyenne Case
Ward, C., Jones, K. W., Madsen, B., Coles, R.,
Rich, L., & Knapp, S., (2014). Mentored
research in a tribal college setting: The
Northern Cheyenne case. Journal of Research
in Rural Education, 29(3), 1–17.
The purpose of this study was to advance
knowledge of effective mentoring and
research experience strategies for minority
undergraduate students with a focus on
retention for students in STEM majors. The
study was conducted over 12 years at a
tribal college of the Northern Cheyenne
Nation in southeastern Montana. Interviews
were conducted with 51 student interns,
paraprofessionals, and science instructors.
The researchers examined student
perceptions of mentor research (i.e.,
undergraduate research experiences that
are guided by a mentor, such as a faculty
member) and the effects of mentoring
programs on student attitudes about
science, future plans, student identities,
and the context of the program supporting
student STEM retention. Results indicated
that mentoring had positive outcomes for
tribal college students. The authors suggest
that mentoring and research opportunities
are empowering for tribal college students
and encourage them to pursue academic
goals, whether or not those goals include
returning to their Native community.
Available at https://tribaleddepartmentsna.
files.wordpress.com/2014/05/00042582.pdf
36 / WEST COMPREHENSIVE CENTER
Mentoring American Indian Middle
School Students to Consider Teaching as
a Career
Reed, K. (2007). Mentoring American Indian
middle school students to consider teaching
as a career. Middle School Journal, 38(3),
25–33.
During the 2002 academic year, the National
Center for Education Statistics reported that
less than one percent of the teaching force
in the United States was American Indian.
Responding to the need for increasing
the number of American Indian teachers
and recognizing the high dropout rates of
American Indian students, the University of
South Dakota’s School of Education joined
with a reservation school in the state to
provide career exploration in teaching for
American Indian middle school students. The
article describes this mentoring/exploratory
project, which took place during the fall of
2004. By the end of the project, university
students expressed greater confidence in
speaking in front of a classroom and working
with middle school students, while middle
school students reported an elevated level
of interest in the teaching profession and
confidence in being able to successfully
pursue a teaching career.
Available for purchase at http://www.
tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00940771.
2007.11461580
Culture and Language Revitalization for Native American Students
Policy Considerations
2014 Native Youth Report
The White House, Executive Office of the
President. (2014). 2014 Native Youth Report.
Washington, DC: Author.
This report, written after President Obama
visited Indian Country in June of 2014,
summarizes the characteristics of federal
policies affecting the education of Native
children. It examines the root causes,
outcomes, and negative consequences of
education inequities as a result of these
policies. This report makes clear that Native
youth today face a variety of barriers but
that with a coordinated effort, significant
changes can be made to improve their lives.
The overarching recommendations include:
(1) strengthen tribal control of education;
(2) provide comprehensive, communitybased student supports; (3) integrate Native
cultures and languages into school climate
and culture; (4) increase support for highly
effective teachers and leaders; (5) promote
up-to-date technology for tribal education;
(6) expand efforts that target suicide
prevention; and (7) address the behavioral
health needs of Native youth.
Available at http://www.
whitehouse.gov/sites/default/files/
docs/20141129nativeyouthreport_final.pdf
American Indian Education: A History
Reyhner, J., & Eder, J. (2006). American
Indian education: A history. Norman, OK:
University of Oklahoma Press.
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This comprehensive history of American
Indian education in the United States, from
colonial times to the present, explores the
broad spectrum of Native experiences in
missionary, government, and tribal boarding
and day schools. The one-volume source
book describes education reform policies
and missionary and government efforts to
Christianize and “civilize” American Indian
children. Drawing on firsthand accounts from
teachers and students, the authors analyze
shifting education policies and philosophies,
paying special attention to the passage of the
Native American Languages Act and current
efforts to revitalize Native American cultures.
Available for purchase at http://www.
oupress.com/ECommerce/Book/Detail/67/
American%20Indian%20Education
Indian Education Policies in Five
Northwest Region States
Smiley, R., & Sather, S. (2009). Indian
education policies in five Northwest Region
states (Issues & Answers Report, REL 2009
No. 081). Washington, DC: U.S. Department
of Education, Institute of Education Sciences,
National Center for Education Evaluation
and Regional Assistance, Regional Education
Laboratory Northwest.
This report categorizes Indian education
policies of Alaska, Idaho, Montana, Oregon,
and Washington. The study focuses on key
Indian education policies, the adoption of
these policies, and the mechanisms that states
employed to adopt these education policies.
Culture and Language Revitalization for Native American Students
Thirteen key policies from 1991 until 2008 are
identified, with commonalties and differences
between states highlighted. Policies common
to all five states included academic standards
addressing Native American culture and
history; Native American students learning
their Native language as part of the education
program; Native American history and culture
being part of the school curriculum; Native
communities being involved in advisory
boards; and teacher certification being
promoted for speakers of Native American
languages. Data collection included internet
and library searches, followed by interviews
with key informants. States most commonly
used state statutes or regulations to formalize
policy. The variety of choices for both policy
and adoption mechanisms are also featured in
this report.
Native American Languages Act have funded
more than 500 programs to date. Even in
states with restrictive English-only policies,
public, Bureau of Indian Education, and
tribally controlled schools are engaging in
dual-immersion programs to reverse Native
language loss. As language revitalization
efforts grow, maintaining official policies
that support and protect Native American
languages will continue to be important for
federal, state, and tribal governments.
Available at http://ies.ed.gov/ncee/edlabs/
regions/northwest/pdf/REL_2009081.pdf
Beaulieu, D. (2008). Native American education
research and policy development in an era of
No Child Left Behind: Native language and
culture during the administrations of Presidents
Clinton and Bush. Journal of American Indian
Education, 47(1), 10–45.
Native American Language Policy in the
United States
Warhol, L. (2011). Native American language
policy in the United States [Heritage brief].
Washington, DC: Center for Applied
Linguistics.
This information brief provides an overview
of past and present policies that have
impacted Native language maintenance and
revitalization efforts. While historically Native
American language policy in the United States
has entailed a difficult struggle to maintain
Native American languages, communities
are now using recent federal, state, and
local policies to protect their languages
and support language revitalization efforts.
Appropriations allocated to the federal
38 / WEST COMPREHENSIVE CENTER
Available at http://www.cal.org/heritage/pdfs/
briefs/native-american-language-policy.pdf
Native American Education Research
and Policy Development in an Era of No
Child Left Behind: Native Language and
Culture During the Administrations of
Presidents Clinton and Bush
This article traces the history of policy
development in Native American education
from the second term of President William J.
Clinton and his signing of Executive Order
13096 of August 6, 1998, on American Indian/
Alaska Native education, through the passage
and implementation of the No Child Left
Behind Act (NCLB) and initial consideration
of its reauthorization near the end of the
presidency of George W. Bush. The article
describes the interaction of political action,
research, and policy development under the
umbrella of the growing political influence
of the National Indian Education Association
Culture and Language Revitalization for Native American Students
(NIEA), leading up to the successful passage
of the Esther Martinez Native American
Languages Preservation Act and preparation
for reauthorization of NCLB. The analysis
provides a perspective of the implementation
of NCLB with American Indian, Alaska Native,
and Native Hawaiian students through the
author’s personal narrative of those years,
during which he served in key positions within
the federal government and NIEA. Throughout
this period, a research agenda in American
Indian/Alaska Native education evolved with
a focus on the role of Native languages and
cultures in Native American education. With
the passage of NCLB, that role was threatened
despite the plain language of Title VII in NCLB
and the pronouncements of President Bush’s
American Indian/Alaska Native education
Executive Order. This threat was blunted by a
significant effort on the part of NIEA to protect
the prominence of Native languages and
cultures in the education of Native students.
Central to this effort and foundational for
future efforts was the 2006 passage of the
Esther Martinez Native American Languages
Preservation Act in a Republican-controlled
Congress and its signing by President Bush.
Available at https://jaie.asu.edu/sites/
default/files/471_2008_2_beaulieu.pdf
Native Children’s Policy Agenda: Putting
First Kids 1st
National Congress of American Indians,
National Indian Child Welfare Association,
National Indian Education Association, &
National Indian Health Board. (August 2015).
Native children’s policy agenda: Putting First
kids 1st. Washington, DC: National Congress
of American Indians.
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The National Congress of American Indians,
the National Indian Child Welfare Association,
the National Indian Education Association,
and the National Indian Health Board created
a joint policy agenda for American Indian
and Alaska Native children’s issues. The
policy agenda identified guiding principles
for improving the lives of Native children and
providing concrete recommendations for
implementation. The principles were grouped
into four overarching themes: healthy
lifestyles, supportive environments, successful
students, and vibrant communities. Each
subsection includes a list of tribal strategies
and policy objectives.
Available at http://www.ncai.org/resources/
ncai-publications/Aug_2015_Native_
Childrens_Policy_Agenda.pdf
The Impact of High-Stakes Accountability
Policies on Native American Learners:
Evidence from Research
McCarty, T. L. (2009). The impact of highstakes accountability policies on Native
American learners: Evidence from research.
Teaching Education, 20(1), 7–29.
This article first examines the education profile
of Native American communities and explains
tribal sovereignty. The author then addresses
the impacts of the No Child Left Behind Act for
Native American students. The final sections
provide examples of promising policies
and practices for future education reform.
Programs and policies related to closure of
the achievement gap include: (1) cultural
integration illustrated by a school in Hawaii
with a 100 percent graduation rate and an
80 percent college attendance rate; (2) an
immersion program in the Navajo Nation in
Culture and Language Revitalization for Native American Students
which English was gradually introduced; and
(3) another type of immersion program that
integrates three languages and cultures in
Arizona. The conclusion includes characteristics
of these policies and programs postulated
to be associated with their effectiveness for
Native American communities.
relationships that exist between non-Indians
and Indians; and (5) model best practices
to connect classrooms and cultures with
cultural sensitivity.
Available for purchase at
http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/
abs/10.1080/10476210802681600
Toward an Ideal Democracy: The
Impact of Standardization Policies on
the American Indian/Alaska Native
Community and Language Revitalization
Efforts
The Positive Impact of Culturally
Responsive Pedagogy: Montana’s Indian
Education for All
Carjuzaa, J. (2012). The positive impact of
culturally responsive pedagogy: Montana’s
Indian Education for All. International Journal
of Multicultural Education, 14(3), 1–17.
This qualitative report examines the impact
of Montana’s mandate requiring educators
to integrate American Indian content into
all instruction, known as Montana’s Indian
Education for All Act (IEFA). This mandate
addresses the many misunderstandings that
appear to be founded on a commonplace
lack of cultural awareness in the Western
states. The report introduces the culture
and context in Montana, continues with the
development and implementation of the
Act, and concludes with recommendations
from IEFA. Findings from this study suggest
that teachers need to: (1) feel prepared to
make a difference by better understanding
American Indian cultures; (2) deconstruct
stereotypes and confront biases through
multicultural education; (3) increase
awareness and knowledge with professional
development; (4) build and foster
relationships through understanding power
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Available at http://ijme-journal.org/index.
php/ijme/article/view/620
Cohen, E., & Allan, A. (2013). Toward an ideal
democracy: The impact of standardization
policies on the American Indian/Alaska
Native community and language revitalization
efforts. Educational Policy, 27(5), 743–769.
This article explores the impact of
standardization policies of the No Child
Left Behind Act of 2001 (NCLB) on the
American Indian/Alaska Native community.
The authors examined current research and
data from the National Indian Education
Study (NIES) of 2009 and argue that
English-only assessments under NCLB
devalued indigenous social and cultural
capital by having no salient measure of
language revitalization efforts. By narrowing
the scope of the curriculum, the NCLB
standards-based reforms were perceived as
straining the relationships between schools
and communities. The authors endorse a
responsive Indian education policy that
unites the concepts of sovereignty, liberty,
and equity toward revitalizing indigenous
language without sacrificing a focus on
raising student achievement.
Available for purchase at http://epx.sagepub.
com/content/27/5/743.abstract
Culture and Language Revitalization for Native American Students
Teacher Preparation and Support
Effective Teachers: Perceptions of Native
American Students in Rural Areas
Prater, G., Rezzonico, A., Pyron, R.,
Chischille, J., Arthur, V., & Yellowhair, B.
(1995, March). Effective teachers: Perceptions
of Native American students in rural areas.
Paper presented at the American Council on
Rural Special Education, Las Vegas, NV.
This paper examines Native American
student perceptions of effective practices of
non-Native teachers. A student survey was
administered to students in grades 3–12
living in rural districts on the Navajo
Reservation in Arizona. The sample involved
148 Navajo students and 10 non-Native
students, with 28 of the students classified
as special need. The survey had open-ended
questions asking about the types of teachers
and instructional practices that facilitated the
greatest amount of learning and teachers’
sensitivity to students’ cultural background.
Findings indicated that students learned
more from hands-on projects and from
teachers who encouraged various means
of learning. Students also emphasized the
importance of teachers imparting lessons
on responsibility and treating students
with respect. Students stated that the most
important teacher qualities were respect,
kindness, positive attitude, patience, and a
sense of humor. They also preferred teachers
who did not speak quickly, make fun of
Native culture, or deliver boring lessons.
A large majority of students felt that teachers
needed to possess a greater sensitivity to
Native culture.
41 / WEST COMPREHENSIVE CENTER
Available at http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/
ED381332.pdf
Next Steps: Research and Practice to
Advance Indian Education
Swisher, K. G., & Tippeconnic, J. W., III. (Eds.).
(1999). Next steps: Research and practice to
advance Indian education. Charleston, WV:
ERIC Clearinghouse on Rural Education and
Small Schools.
The purpose of this book is to support
teacher preparation by describing crucial
issues in American Indian/Alaska Native
education. The book addresses foundations
of Indian education from historical and
contemporary perspectives. Curricula are
discussed in terms of foundations, theories,
and practices viewed through a cultural
lens. This section includes best practices,
assessment methods, and cross-cultural
strategies. Next, the college experience
is discussed, with a focus on access to
education and achievement. This book
concludes with suggestions for research to
support practice and ultimately improve
Native student education. Chapter authors
advocate for several specific improvements to
be made to better engage and accommodate
Native students. These include having
educators examine school and environmental
factors that affect the quality of schooling
rather than viewing Native students through a
deficit model; utilizing community resources
and traditional healing practices to help
students who may be dealing with mental
health issues; and using performance-based
Culture and Language Revitalization for Native American Students
tests that involve not only students but
teachers and parents in the assessment of
students’ progress.
Available at http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/
ED427902.pdf
authors emphasize that the goal of teacher
education is to empower and prepare
American Indian and Alaska Native students
to feel comfortable moving in different
cultures (e.g., school, community, heritage) by
valuing their culture.
Preparing Teachers to Support American
Indian and Alaska Native Student Success
and Cultural Heritage
Available at http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/
ED459990.pdf
Jacobs, D. T., & Reyhner, J. (2002). Preparing
teachers to support American Indian
and Alaska Native student success and
cultural heritage. Charleston, WV: ERIC
Clearinghouse on Rural Education and Small
Schools.
The Oksale Story: Training Teachers for
Schools Serving American Indians and
Alaska Natives
This article reviews research from Native
and non-Native sources in order to support
the authors’ argument that research-based
knowledge of cultural approaches to learning
exists and should be incorporated into
teacher preparation programs. The goal
of this article is to promote opportunities
for American Indian and Alaska Native
students to learn about and contribute to
their communities while honoring traditional
cultural values. The authors assert that
teacher training programs should prepare
teachers to provide reflective/responsive
teaching; to understand literature on
breadth and depth of knowledge, including
an examination of Indian dropout studies;
to incorporate high academic and cultural
expectations; to support values such as
spirituality and Native identity within the
community; to work with students’ families
in supporting academic achievement; to
motivate and engage students by educating
them within a relevant cultural context; and
to teach from their own cultural identity. The
42 / WEST COMPREHENSIVE CENTER
Pavel, M., Banks, S. R., & Pavel, S. C.
(2002). The Oksale story: Training teachers
for schools serving American Indians and
Alaska Natives. Journal of American Indian
Education, 41(2), 38–47.
The article describes a teacher-training
program for Native students developed
through a partnership between a tribal
college, Northwest Indian College, and a
public research institution, Washington State
University. Both institutions have convergent
goals of training teachers. Northwest Indian
College provides courses leading to a
transferable associate of arts degree, while
Washington State University offers instruction
leading to a bachelor of arts degree and
a teacher certification program accredited
by the state of Washington. Students learn
to apply knowledge gained in coursework
through more than 100 hours of practicum
experience, and they are provided with
academic, financial, and personal support
services to facilitate graduation in a timely
manner. Students were interviewed to
obtain their perspectives on the unique
elements of the programs and how their
involvement in the Oksale Native teacher
Culture and Language Revitalization for Native American Students
preparation program affected their college
experience, personal growth, and cultural
knowledge. All students reported that the
Oksale Native teacher preparation program
greatly enhanced personal and professional
growth and encouraged the use of cultural
knowledge as a foundation for learning.
What Do We Have to Do to Create
Culturally Responsive Programs? The
Challenge of Transforming American
Indian Teacher Education
Belgarde, M. J., Mitchell, R. D., & Arguero, A.
(2002). What do we have to do to create
culturally responsive programs? The
challenge of transforming American Indian
teacher education. Action in Teacher
Education, 24(2), 42–54.
Culturally responsive education is defined as
generally validating cultures and languages of
students and allowing them to co-construct
knowledge in schools. The authors sought
to identify culturally responsive teacher
education models for teaching American
Indians. The article provides (1) a brief
historical overview of American Indian
education; (2) a description of efforts to
address teacher preparation issues; and
(3) lessons learned in culturally responsive
teacher training. Three broad changes are
proposed to promote practices that benefit
American Indian students. First, establish
infrastructure for the participation of Native
voices in the education process. Second,
institutionalize curriculum and instruction
43 / WEST COMPREHENSIVE CENTER
norms that are culturally responsive. Third,
advance the scholarly study of teaching
and learning within Indian communities to
advance knowledge about Indian education.
Available for purchase at http://www.
tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/01626620.
2002.10734418
What Every Teacher Needs to Know to
Teach Native American Students
Morgan, H. (2009). What every teacher needs
to know to teach Native American students.
Multicultural Education, 16(4), 10–12.
The author discusses the culture and learning
styles of Native American students in this
review paper and offers research-based
education practices that will likely aid this
group of students to attain greater academic
and emotional success in the school context.
The author argues that in order to teach
Native Americans in a way that reflects their
culture, teachers must realize that Native
American students are often taught differently
at home compared to mainstream students.
Native American children can also differ
greatly from each other and teachers cannot
assume that one instructional approach or
strategy will work for all Native students.
If Native American students are to reach
their potential in school, it is recommended
that teachers understand those students’
preferred ways of learning.
Available at http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/
EJ858583.pdf
Culture and Language Revitalization for Native American Students
Appendix: Summary of Topics
Covered in All Articles Contained
in the Annotated Bibliography
of Culture and Language
Revitalization Literature
A
majority of articles contained in the annotated bibliography contained
information pertaining to multiple topic areas. However, to facilitate ease
of reading and avoid confusion, each article is only mentioned once in
the bibliography, with the category chosen based on its main topic. The
following tables include each article by main topic area and any other topics
addressed by the content.
TOPIC KEY:
CCP = College-Community Partnerships
CBE = Culture-Based Education and
Culturally Responsive Teaching
LRI = Language Revitalization and
Immersion Efforts
MPT = Mentoring and Peer Tutoring
ECE = Early Childhood Education
PC = Policy Considerations
FCI = Family and Community
Involvement/Engagement
TPS = Teacher Preparation and Support
44 / WEST COMPREHENSIVE CENTER
Culture and Language Revitalization for Native American Students
Table 1. College-Community Partnerships
Article Title
American Indians and Alaska Natives in Higher
Education: Promoting Access and Achievement
CBE
ECE
FCI
X
Building Community-University Partnerships by
Listening, Learning, and Responding
X
Identifying Community Needs and Resources in a
Native Community: A Research Partnership in the
Pacific Northwest
X
'Walk Softly and Listen Carefully': Building Research
Relationships with Tribal Communities
MPT
PC
TPS
X
Better Together: Coeur d’Alene Reservation
Communities and the University of Idaho
Retaining American Indian/Alaskan Native Students
in Higher Education: A Case Study of One
Partnership Between the Tohono O’odham Nation
and Pima Community College, Tucson, Arizona
LRI
X
X
X
X
Note: CCP = College-Community Partnerships; CBE = Culture-Based Education and Culturally Responsive Teaching;
ECE = Early Childhood Education; FCI = Family and Community Involvement/Engagement; LRI = Language Revitalization
and Immersion Efforts; MPT = Mentoring and Peer Tutoring; PC = Policy Considerations; and, TPS = Teacher Preparation
and Support.
45 / WEST COMPREHENSIVE CENTER
Culture and Language Revitalization for Native American Students
Table 2. Culture-Based Education and Culturally Responsive Teaching
Article Title
CCP
A Review of the Research Literature on the
Influences of Culturally Based Education on
the Academic Performance of Native American
Students
A Survey and Assessment of Culturally Based
Education Programs for Native American Students
in the United States
ECE
FCI
LRI
X
TPS
X
X
An Exploratory Study of Cultural Identity and
Culture-Based Educational Programs for Urban
American Indian Students
X
X
Cultural Differences of Teaching and Learning:
A Native American Perspective of Participating in
Educational Systems and Organizations
X
X
X
X
Culturally Responsive Schooling for Indigenous
Youth: A Review of the Literature
Culture, Chaos, and Complexity: Catalysts for
Change in Indigenous Education
PC
X
American Indian Cultures and the Classroom
Culturally Appropriate Curriculum: A ResearchBased Rationale
MPT
X
X
X
Does Cultural Programming Improve Educational
Outcomes for American Indian Youth?
Effective Practices for Creating Transformative
Informal Science Education Programs Grounded in
Native Ways of Knowing
X
Effective Standards-Based Practices for Native
American Students: A Review of Research
Literature
X
X
Effective Teaching Strategies for Engaging Native
American Students
X
Engaging Native American Learners with Rigor and
Cultural Relevance
Handbook of Heritage, Community, and Native
American Languages in the United States: Research,
Policy, and Educational Practice
46 / WEST COMPREHENSIVE CENTER
X
X
Culture and Language Revitalization for Native American Students
Article Title
CCP
ECE
FCI
LRI
MPT
PC
Learning Styles of American Indian/Alaska
Native Students: A Review of the Literature and
Implications for Practice
National Indian Education Study 2009 - Part II:
The Educational Experiences of American Indian
and Alaska Native Students in Grades 4 and 8
(NCES 2010‑463)
TPS
X
X
Research in American Indian and Alaska Native
Education: From Assimilation to Self-Determination
Self-Determination through Self-Education:
Culturally Responsive Schooling for Indigenous
Students in the USA
X
The Educational Aspirations/Attainment Gap
Among Rural Alaska Native Students
X
The Influence of Culture on Learning and
Assessment among Native American Students
Traditional Culture and Academic Success among
American Indian Children in the Upper Midwest
Virtual Museum Projects for Culturally Responsive
Teaching in American Indian Education
X
Note: CCP = College-Community Partnerships; CBE = Culture-Based Education and Culturally Responsive Teaching;
ECE = Early Childhood Education; FCI = Family and Community Involvement/Engagement; LRI = Language Revitalization
and Immersion Efforts; MPT = Mentoring and Peer Tutoring; PC = Policy Considerations; and, TPS = Teacher Preparation
and Support.
47 / WEST COMPREHENSIVE CENTER
Culture and Language Revitalization for Native American Students
Table 3. Early Childhood Education
Article Title
CCP
CBE
FCI
LRI
A Summary of Research and Publications on Early
Childhood for American Indian and Alaska Native
Children
X
X
X
An Investigation of How Culture Shapes Curriculum
in Early Care and Education Programs on a Native
American Indian Reservation
X
X
Dear Children: Preferred Preparation for Native
Early Childhood Education
X
For Each and Every Child: A Strategy for Education
Equity and Excellence
Improving Academic Performance among Native
American Students — A Review of the Research
Literature
MPT
PC
TPS
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Proceedings of the Rural Early Childhood Forum on
American Indian and Alaska Native Early Learning
Note: CCP = College-Community Partnerships; CBE = Culture-Based Education and Culturally Responsive Teaching;
ECE = Early Childhood Education; FCI = Family and Community Involvement/Engagement; LRI = Language Revitalization
and Immersion Efforts; MPT = Mentoring and Peer Tutoring; PC = Policy Considerations; and, TPS = Teacher Preparation
and Support.
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Culture and Language Revitalization for Native American Students
Table 4. Family and Community Involvement/Engagement
Article Title
CCP
CBE
A Native American Community’s Involvement
and Empowerment to Guide Their Children’s
Development in the School Setting
X
Examining American Indian Perspectives in the
Central Region on Parent Involvement in Children’s
Education
X
Factors Influencing Transition for Students with
Disabilities: The American Indian Experience
X
Families and Schools Together: An Experimental
Analysis of a Parent-Mediated Multi-Family Group
Program for American Indian Children
X
ECE
LRI
MPT
PC
TPS
X
Family, Community, and School Influences on
Resilience among American Indian Adolescents in
the Upper Midwest
Home-Going as a Strategy for Success among
Haudenosaunee College and University Students
X
X
“My Culture, My Family, My School, Me”:
Identifying Strengths and Challenges in the Lives
and Communities of American Indian Youth
X
Navajo Culture and Family Influences on Academic
Success: Traditionalism Is Not a Significant
Predictor of Achievement among Navajo Youth
X
Reforming Education from the Inside-Out: A Study
of Community Engagement and Educational
Reform in Rural Alaska
X
Supporting American Indian Students in the
Transition to Postsecondary Education
Supporting Native Indian Preschoolers and Their
Families: Family-School-Community Partnerships
X
X
X
X
The Context and Meaning of Family Strengthening
in Indian America
The Traditional Tribal Values of Ojibwa Parents
and the School Performance of Their Children: An
Exploratory Study
X
Note: CCP = College-Community Partnerships; CBE = Culture-Based Education and Culturally Responsive Teaching;
ECE = Early Childhood Education; FCI = Family and Community Involvement/Engagement; LRI = Language Revitalization
and Immersion Efforts; MPT = Mentoring and Peer Tutoring; PC = Policy Considerations; and, TPS = Teacher Preparation
and Support.
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Culture and Language Revitalization for Native American Students
Table 5. Language Revitalization and Immersion Efforts
Article Title
CCP
CBE
Grassroots Suggestions for Linking NativeLanguage Learning, Native American Studies, and
Mainstream Education in Reservation Schools with
Mixed Indian and White Student Populations
X
Indigenous Language Revitalization:
Encouragement, Guidance, & Lessons Learned
X
Language and Tribal Sovereignty: Whose Language
Is It Anyway?
ECE
FCI
MPT
PC
TPS
X
Native Language Immersion: Innovative Native
Education for Children and Families
X
X
Native Language Renewal: Dispelling the Myths,
Planning for the Future
X
X
Reclaiming Indigenous Languages:
A Reconsideration of the Roles and Responsibilities
of Schools
X
X
Revitalising Indigenous Languages in
Homogenising Times
X
X
Schooling for Self-Determination: Research on the
Effects of Including Native Language and Culture
in the Schools
X
The Atse Kituwah Academy: An Immersion Model
That Holds the Key to the Future of the Cherokee
Language and Culture
State of the Field: The Role of Native Languages
and Cultures in American Indian, Alaska Native,
and Native Hawaiian Student Achievement
X
X
Note: CCP = College-Community Partnerships; CBE = Culture-Based Education and Culturally Responsive Teaching;
ECE = Early Childhood Education; FCI = Family and Community Involvement/Engagement; LRI = Language Revitalization
and Immersion Efforts; MPT = Mentoring and Peer Tutoring; PC = Policy Considerations; and, TPS = Teacher Preparation
and Support.
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Culture and Language Revitalization for Native American Students
Table 6. Mentoring and Peer Tutoring
Article Title
CCP
Mentored Research in a Tribal College Setting: The
Northern Cheyenne Case
X
Mentoring American Indian Middle School
Students to Consider Teaching as a Career
X
CBE
ECE
FCI
LRI
PC
X
TPS
X
Note: CCP = College-Community Partnerships; CBE = Culture-Based Education and Culturally Responsive Teaching;
ECE = Early Childhood Education; FCI = Family and Community Involvement/Engagement; LRI = Language Revitalization
and Immersion Efforts; MPT = Mentoring and Peer Tutoring; PC = Policy Considerations; and, TPS = Teacher Preparation
and Support.
Table 7. Policy Considerations
Article Title
CCP
CBE
ECE
FCI
LRI
X
X
MPT
TPS
2014 Native Youth Report
American Indian Education: A History
Indian Education Policies in Five Northwest Region
States
X
Native American Language Policy in the
United States
X
X
Native American Education Research and
Policy Development in an Era of No Child Left
Behind: Native Language and Culture During the
Administrations of Presidents Clinton and Bush
X
X
Native Children’s Policy Agenda: Putting First
Kids 1st
X
The Impact of High Stakes Accountability
Policies on Native American Learners: Evidence
from Research
X
The Positive Impact of Culturally Responsive
Pedagogy: Montana’s Indian Education for All
X
Toward an Ideal Democracy: The Impact of
Standardization Policies on the American Indian/
Alaska Native Community and Language
Revitalization Efforts
X
X
X
X
Note: CCP = College-Community Partnerships; CBE = Culture-Based Education and Culturally Responsive Teaching;
ECE = Early Childhood Education; FCI = Family and Community Involvement/Engagement; LRI = Language Revitalization
and Immersion Efforts; MPT = Mentoring and Peer Tutoring; PC = Policy Considerations; and, TPS = Teacher Preparation
and Support.
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Culture and Language Revitalization for Native American Students
Table 8. Teacher Preparation and Support
Article Title
CCP
CBE
Effective Teachers: Perceptions of Native American
Students in Rural Areas
FCI
LRI
MPT
PC
X
Next Steps: Research and Practice to Advance
Indian Education
X
Preparing Teachers to Support American Indian
and Alaska Native Student Success and Cultural
Heritage
X
The Oksale Story: Training Teachers for Schools
Serving American Indians and Alaska Natives
X
X
What Do We Have to Do to Create Culturally
Responsive Programs? The Challenge of
Transforming American Indian Teacher Education
X
X
What Every Teacher Needs to Know to Teach
Native American Students
ECE
X
X
Note: CCP = College-Community Partnerships; CBE = Culture-Based Education and Culturally Responsive Teaching;
ECE = Early Childhood Education; FCI = Family and Community Involvement/Engagement; LRI = Language Revitalization
and Immersion Efforts; MPT = Mentoring and Peer Tutoring; PC = Policy Considerations; and, TPS = Teacher Preparation
and Support.
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Culture and Language Revitalization for Native American Students
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