FIRST VOYAGE
Chinese history, the treasure voyages were the seven Ming-era
maritime voyages of the treasure fleet between 1405 and 1433. The
Yongle Emperor initiated the construction of the treasure fleet in
1403. The grand project resulted in seven far-reaching ocean
voyages to the coastal territories and islands in and around the South
China Sea, the Indian Ocean, and beyond. Admiral Zheng He was
commissioned to command the treasure fleet for the expeditions. Six
of the voyages occurred during the Yongle reign (r. 1402–24), while
the seventh voyage occurred under the Xuande reign (r. 1425–1435).
The first three voyages reached up to Calicut on India's southwestern
coast, while the fourth voyage went as far as Hormuz in the Persian
Gulf. Afterwards, the fleet made voyages farther away to the Arabian
Peninsula and East Africa.
The Chinese expeditionary fleet was heavily militarized and carried
great amounts of treasures, which served to project Chinese power
and wealth to the known world. They brought back many foreign
ambassadors whose kings and rulers were willing to declare
themselves tributaries of China. During the course of the voyages,
they destroyed Chen Zuyi's pirate fleet at Palembang, conquered the
Sinhalese Kotte kingdom of King Alekeshvara, and defeated the
forces of the Semudera pretender Sekandar in northern Sumatra. The
Chinese maritime exploits had brought many foreign countries into
the nation's tributary system and sphere of influence through both
military and political supremacy, thus incorporating the states into the
greater Chinese world order under Ming suzerainty.
The treasure voyages were commanded and overseen by the eunuch
establishment whose political influence was heavily dependent on
imperial favor. However, within Ming China's imperial state system,
the civil government were the primary political opponents of the
eunuchs and the opposing faction against the expeditions. Around
the end of the maritime voyages, the civil government gained the
upper hand within the state bureaucracy, while the eunuchs gradually
fell out of favor after the death of the Yongle Emperor.
Over the course of the maritime voyages of the early 15th century,
Ming China had become the pre-eminent naval power by projecting
its sea-power further to the south and west. There is still much debate
to this day about the actual purpose of the voyages, the size of the
ships, the magnitude of the fleet, the routes taken, the nautical charts
employed, the countries visited, and the cargo carried.[1]
SECOND VOYAGE
In the third lunar month (30 March to 28 April) of 1405, a preliminary
order was issued for Zheng He and others to take command of
27,000 troops to the Western Ocean.[13] An imperial edict, dated to 11
July 1405, was issued containing the order for the expedition.[14][15] It
was addressed to Zheng He, Wang Jinghong and others.[14]
The Yongle Emperor held a banquet for the crew on the evening
before the fleet's maiden voyage.[16] Gifts were presented to the
officers and the common crew according to their rank.[16] Sacrifices
and prayers were offered to Tianfei, the patron goddess of sailors,
hoping to ensure a successful journey and a safe passage during the
voyage.[16] In the autumn of 1405, the treasure fleet had assembled at
Nanjing and was ready to depart from the city.[17] According to the
Taizong shilu 11 July 1405 entry about the dispatch of the fleet,
Admiral Zheng He and "others" departed for the first expedition
"bearing imperial letters to the countries of the Western Ocean and
with gifts to their kings of gold brocade, patterned silks, and colored
silk gauze, according to their status."[18] The treasure fleet made a
stop at Liujiagang.[19][20] There, the fleet was organized in squadrons,
while the fleet's crew honored the goddess of sailors Tianfei with
prayers and sacrifices.[19] Afterwards, the fleet sailed down the
Chinese coast,[20][21] towards the mouth of the Min River,[21] where they
awaited the northeast monsoon at Taiping anchorage in the Changle
district.[21] More prayers and sacrifices were conducted for Tianfei by
the crew during the wait for the northeast monsoon.[21] Afterwards, the
fleet departed via the Wuhumen (lit. "five tiger passage") in
Fujian.[21][22]
The treasure fleet sailed to Champa,[20][21][23] Java,[20][23][24] Malacca,[20][23]
Aru,[23][24] Semudera,[20][23][24] Lambri,[23][24] Ceylon,[20][23][24] Qiulon,[20][23] and
Calicut.[20][23][25] From Lambri, the treasure fleet sailed straight through
the Indian Ocean rather follow the Bay of Bengal coastline to
Ceylon.[24] Three days after the departure from Lambri, a ship split off
to and went to the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.[24] The treasure fleet
saw the mountains of Ceylon after another six days and arrived at
Ceylon's western coast two days thereafter.[24] They were met with a
hostile attitude from Alagakkonara, so they left the place.[26] Dreyer
(2007) states that it is possible that Admiral Zheng He made port at
Quilon—but there is no account confirming this—because the King of
Quilon was with the fleet when they returned to China in 1407.[27] Mills
(1970) states that the fleet may have made a four-month stay at
Calicut, from December to April 1407 probably.[28] Around Cape
Comorin at southern tip of the Indian Peninsula, the treasure fleet
changed direction and began with its return journey to China.[27] On
the return, the fleet made port at Malacca again.[29]
While returning homewards, Admiral Zheng He and his associates
confronted the pirate fleet of Chen Zuyi at Palembang.[23][29] Chen Zuyi
was a pirate leader whose fleet had seized Palembang on
Sumatra.[20][29] He came to dominate the maritime route at the
Malaccan strait.[20] The Taizong Shilu recorded that Chen Zuyi tried to
evade and withdraw from active engagement with the treasure fleet,[29]
although the much-later account in the Mingshi recorded that Chen
Zuyi planned to intercept and ambush the treasure fleet.[30] Dreyer
(2007) characterized the latter account as a disparaging attempt to
portray Chen Zuyi as an evil pirate in contrast to the submitted
Chinese merchants of Palembang.[30] The treasure fleet defeated
Chen's pirate fleet.[20] During the confrontation, 5000 pirates were
killed, ten pirate ships were destroyed by fire, and seven pirate ships
were captured.[30] Chen Zuyi and his lieutenants were executed on 2
October 1407.[31] On 29 October 1407, the Yongle Emperor issued an
order to reward the officers and other crew members who went to
battle against Chen Zuyi's pirate fleet at Palambeng.[32] Ma Huan later
wrote that Shi Jinqing, "a man of Guangdong" but residing in
Palembang, was the person who had informed Admiral Zheng He
about Chen Zuyi's depredations.[33]
They arrived back in Nanjing on 2 October 1407.[15][30][34] After
accompanying the treasure fleet during the return journey, the foreign
envoys (from Calicut, Quilon, Semudera, Aru, Malacca, and other
unspecified nations) visited the Ming court to pay homage and
present tribute in their local products.[14][31][35] The Yongle Emperor
ordered the Ministry of Rites, whose duties included the protocol
concerning foreign ambassadors, to prepare gifts for the foreign kings
who had sent envoys to the court.[31]
SECOND VOYAGE The imperial order for the second voyage was issued in October of
1407.[a][20][36] The edict was addressed to Zheng He, Wang Jinghong,
and Hou Xian.[36] Lang Ying's Qixiuleiqao (七修類稿) recorded that
Zheng He, Wang Jinghong, and Hou Xian were dispatched in 1407.[37]
The Taizong Shilu recorded that Zheng He and others went as
envoys to the countries of Calicut, Malacca, Semudera, Aru, Jiayile,
Java, Siam, Champa, Cochin, Abobadan, Qiulon, Lambri, and
Ganbali.[38]
On 30 October 1407, a Grand Director was dispatched with a
squadron to Champa before Admiral Zheng He followed with the main
body of the fleet.[39] The fleet departed in the fifth year, late 1407 or
possibly early 1408, of the Yongle reign.[15] The fleet traveled from
Nanjing to Liujiagang to Changle.[40] They then sailed to Champa;
Siam; Java; Malacca; Semudera, Aru, and Lambri on Sumatra;
Jiayile, Abobadan, Ganbali, Qiulon, Cochin, and Calicut in India.[40]
Dreyer (2007) states that it's possible that Siam and Java were visited
by the main fleet or by detached squadrons before regrouping at
Malacca.[40] During this voyage, Admiral Zheng He and his fleet didn't
land on Ceylon.[40] The fleet was tasked to carry out the formal
investure of Mana Vikraan (馬那必加剌滿) as the King of
Calicut.[25][36][41] A tablet was placed in Calicut to commemorate the
relationship between China and India.[25][36]
In this voyage, Ming China would also forcibly settle the enmity that
existed between it and Java.[38] Java was ruled by successive
Majapahit kings, who had acted defiantly towards Ming China since
the Hongwu reign.[24] During the civil war between 1401 and 1406, the
King of West Java had killed 170 personnel of a Chinese embassy[b]
when they came ashore on his rival's territory at East Java.[38] The
Taizong Shilu 23 October 1407 entry recorded that the Yongle
Emperor summoned the Javanese ambassadors.[38] It stated that he
accused Java of begging for forgiveness, because Ming China was
mobilizing its army to punish them.[38] It also noted that he demanded
60,000 ounces of gold and ordered them to reflect on the situation in
Annam (Vietnam), which had recently been invaded by Chinese
armies.[38] This happened after the second expedition had been
ordered and probably before it had left.[38] The Chinese received and
accepted their payment and their apology.[42] They would continue to
monitor their activities during subsequent voyages.[42]
During the journey, the fleet visited the Pulau Sembilan in the Strait of
Malacca on the 7th year of the Yongle reign (1409) according to Fei
Xin.[37][40] He stated that the troops were sent there to cut wood.[37]
Dreyer (2007) concluded that the stop was during the return journey
as the treasure fleet didn't leave the Chinese coast for the third
voyage until early 1410.[40] Fei Xin's written words were: "In the
seventh year of Yongle, Zheng He and his associates sent
government troops onto the island to cut incense. They obtained six
logs, each eight or nine chi[c] in diameter and six or seven zhang[c] in
length, whose aroma was pure and far-ranging. The pattern [of the
wood] was black, with fine lines. The people of the island opened
their eyes wide and stuck out their tongues in astonishment, and
were told that 'We are the soldiers of the Heavenly Court, and our
awe-inspiring power is like that of the gods.'"[43] The treasure fleet
arrived back in Nanjing in the summer of 1409.[20][40]
The possible confusion of whether Admiral Zheng He undertook the
second voyage stemmed from the fact that a Chinese envoy was
dispatched before Admiral Zheng He had departed with the main
body of the fleet.[31] The imperial edict for the third voyage was issued
during the period of the second voyage whilst the treasure fleet was
still in the Indian Ocean.[44] So either Admiral Zheng He was absent
when the court issued the imperial order or he didn't accompany the
fleet during the second voyage.[44] On 21 January 1409, a grand
ceremony was held in the honor of the goddess Tianfei, where she
received a new title.[45] J.J.L. Duyvendak thinks that Admiral Zheng He
couldn't have been on the second voyage, because this ceremony
was so important that it required Zheng He's attendance.[45] Mills
(1970), citing Duyvendak, also states that Zheng He didn't
accompany the fleet for this voyage.[36] However, Fei Xin explicitly
mentions Zheng He when describing the 1409 stop at Pulau
Sembilan, which strongly suggests that Zheng He had been on the
second voyage according to Dreyer (2007).[46]
THIRD VOYAGE The imperial order for the third voyage was issued on the first month
of the seventh year of the Yongle reign (16 January to 14 February
1409).[48][49][50] It was addressed to Zheng He, Wang Jinghong, and Hou
Xian.[48][50]
Admiral Zheng He embarked for this voyage in 1409.[51] The fleet
departed from Liujiagang in the ninth month (9 October to 6
November 1409) and arrived at Changle in the following month (7
November to 6 December).[44][50][51] They left Changle in the twelfth
month (5 January to 3 February 1410) for the seas.[44][51] They
proceeded through the Wuhumen (at the entrance of the Min River in
Fujian).[50] The fleet made stops at Champa, Java, Malacca,
Semudera, Ceylon, Quilon, Cochin, and Calicut.[20][44][52] They traveled
to Champa within 10 days.[44][50] Wang Jinghong and Hou Xian made
short stops at Siam, Malacca, Semudera, and Ceylon during
detours.[20] Arriving in Ceylon in 1410, the treasure fleet landed at
Galle.[44]
During the homeward journey in 1411, the treasure fleet would
engage into a military confrontation with King Alakeshvara
(Alagakkonara) of Ceylon.[d][52][53] Alakeshvara posed a threat to the
neighboring countries and local waters of Ceylon and southern
India.[54] On arrival at Ceylon, the Chinese were overbearing and
contemptuous of the Sinhalese who they considered rude,
disrespectful, and hostile.[55] They also resented that the Sinhalese
were committing attacks and piracy towards neighboring countries
who had diplomatic relations with Ming China.[55] Admiral Zheng He
and a few of his troops traveled overland into Kotte, because
Alakeshvara had lured them into his territory.[55] Alakeshvara cut off
Admiral Zheng He and his 2000 accompanying troops from the
treasure fleet,[56] anchored at Colombo.[54] He also planned to launch
an attack on the fleet.[20][54] In response, Admiral Zheng He and his
troops invaded Kotte, conquering its capital.[54] They took captive
Alakeshvara, his family, and principal officials.[50][56] The Sinhalese
army hastily returned and surrounded the capital, but they were
repeatedly defeated in battle against the invading Chinese troops.[55]
The opposing Sinhalese army was said to have over 50,000 troops.[54]
The king and his family were taken captive to Nanjing, China.[53]
Chinese sources make no mention when the confrontation exactly
happened during the course of the third voyage.[54]
Admiral Zheng He returned to Nanjing in 6 July 1411.[50][57] Thereafter,
he presented the Sinhalese captives to the Yongle Emperor.[50]
Eventually, the emperor decided to free and return them to their
country.[50][53][54] He also requested the Ministry of Rites to recommend
someone to serve as the new king.[54] However, the previous
legitimate dynasty had already re-established themselves in Kotte by
the time the Chinese embassy arrived.[54] From then on, the treasure
fleet would experience no hostilities during visits to Ceylon on
subsequent treasure voyages.[54]
FOURTH
VOYAGE On 18 December 1412, the Yongle Emperor issued the order for the
fourth voyage.[52][58][59] Admiral Zheng He and others were commanded
to lead it.[58][59]
The Yongle Emperor attended an archery contest for the Midsummer
Festival of 1413 (5th day, 5th month, 11th year).[60] All the Chinese
officials and "barbarian" envoys were invited to attend this event.[60]
Duyvendak (1938) states that these envoys were so numerous that
they most-likely comprised many of those whom Admiral Zheng He
would escort back to their countries during the fourth voyage rather
than those from close neighbors.[60] This expedition would lead the
treasure fleet into Muslim countries, thus it must have been important
for the Chinese to seek out reliable interpreters, such as Ma Huan
(who would join the treasure voyages for the first time).[61] A 1523
inscription at a Muslim mosque in Xi'an recorded that, on the 4th
month of the 11th year, Admiral Zheng He was there to seek reliable
interpreters and found a man named Hasan.[61]
Admiral Zheng He's fleet left Nanjing in 1413, probably in the
autumn.[59][62][63] They set sail from Fujian in the 12th month of the 11th
year in the Yongle reign (23 December 1413 to 21 January 1414).[62][63]
Calicut had been the most-western destination during the previous
voyages, but now the fleet sailed to lands further away.[64] The
Taizong Shilu recorded Malacca, Java, Champa, Semudera, Aru,
Cochin, Calicut, Lambri, Pahang, Kelantan, Jiayile, Ormuz, Bila,
Maldives, and Sunla for this voyage.[52]
The fleet sailed to Champa,[62][65] Kelatan,[65] Pahang,[65] Malacca,[62][65]
Palembang,[65][66] Java,[64][65] Lambri,[64][65] Lide,[64] Aru,[64] Semudera,[64][65]
Ceylon,[64][65] Jiayile (opposite Ceylon),[64] Cochin;[64][65] and Calicut.[64][65]
They proceeded to Liushan (Maldive and Laccadive Islands),[65][67] Bila
(Bitra Atoll),[67] Sunla (Chetlat Atoll),[67] and Hormuz.[65][67] At Java, the
fleet delivered gifts and favors from the Yongle Emperor.[64] In return,
a Javanese envoy arrived in China on 29 April 1415, presenting
tribute in the form of "western horses" and local products while
expressing gratitude.[64]
In 1415, the fleet made a stop at northern Sumatra during the journey
homeward from Hormuz.[68] They would engage Sekandar at this point
of the voyage.[65] Sekandar had earlier usurped the Semudera throne
from Zain al-'Abidin,[59] but the Chinese had formally recognized the
latter as the King of Semudera.[68] Even though Sekandar was an
autonomous ruler in his own right, he was not recognized by the
Chinese.[68] Admiral Zheng He had orders to launch a punitive attack
against the usurper and restore Zain al-'Abidin as the rightful king.[59]
In retaliation to the situation, Sekandar led his forces to attack the
Ming forces, but Admiral Zheng He and his troops disembarked from
their ships and captured Sekandar.[68] They had pursued Sekandar's
forces to Lambri where they caught Sekandar, his wife, and his
child.[59] King Zain al-'Abidin later dispatched a tribute mission to
express his gratefulness.[68] This conflict reaffirmed Chinese power
over the foreign states and the maritime route by protecting the local
political authority that sheltered the trade.[68] Sekandar was presented
to the Yongle Emperor at the palace gate and later executed.[59] It is
not known when this execution happened, but Ma Huan stated that
Sekandar was publicly executed in the capital after the fleet
returned.[69]
On 12 August 1415, Admiral Zheng He's fleet returned to Nanjing
from his voyage.[52][59][69] The day after their return, a eunuch was sent
to Bengal.[69] The Yongle Emperor had been absent since 16 March
1413 for his second Mongol campaign and hadn't returned when the
fleet arrived.[62] After the fleet's return, rulers of 18 countries sent
envoys bearing tribute to the Ming court.[65]
FIFTH VOYAGE
On 14 November 1416, the Yongle Emperor returned to Nanjing.[70]
On 19 November, a grand ceremony was held where the Yongle
Emperor bestowed gifts to princes, civil officials, military officers, and
the ambassadors of 18 countries.[70] On 19 December, the eighteen[e]
ambassadors were received at the Ming court.[71] On 28 December,
they visited the Ming court to take their leave and were bestowed
robes before their departure.[70] That day, the Yongle Emperor ordered
the undertaking of fifth voyage,[62][71][72] which had the avowed objective
to return the 18 ambassadors and to reward their kings.[71][72] On 12
April 1417, he left Nanjing to tour the north.[62]
Admiral Zheng He and other unnamed people had received orders to
escort the ambassadors back home.[70] They carried imperial letters
and many gifts for several kings.[70] The King of Cochin received
special treatment, because he had sent tribute since 1411 and later
also sent ambassadors to request the patent of investiture and a
seal.[70] The Yongle Emperor granted him both requests, conferred to
him a long inscription (allegedly composed by the emperor himself),
and gave the title "State Protecting Mountain" to a hill in Cochin.[70]
Admiral Zheng He may have left the Chinese coast in the autumn of
1417.[71][73] Admiral Zheng He first made port at Quanzhou to load up
the fleet's cargoholds with porcelain and other goods.[74]
Archaeological finds of contemporary Chinese porcelain have been
excavated at the East African places visited by Zheng He's fleet.[75] A
Ming tablet at Quanzhou commemorates that Admiral Zheng He
burned incense for divine protection for this voyage on 31 May
1417.[75][76] The fleet visited the following places: Champa, Pahang,
Java, Palembang, Malacca, Semudera, Lambri, Ceylon, Cochin,
Calicut, Shaliwanni (possibly Cannanore), Liushan (Maladive and
Laccadive Islands), Hormuz, Lasa, Aden, Mogadishu, Brava, Zhubu,
and Malindi.[77] For Arabia and East Africa, the most-likely route was
Hormuz, Lasa, Aden, Mogadishu, Brava, Zhubu, and then Malindi.[78]
Duyvendak suggested that Zheng He made a show of military force at
Mogadishu and Lasa due to the unwelcome reception by the locals.[71]
On 8 August 1419, the fleet had returned to China.[71][75][79] The Yongle
Emperor was still in Beijing at the time, but he ordered the Ministry of
Rites to give monetary rewards to the fleet's personnel.[80] The
accompanied ambassadors were received at the Ming court on the
eight lunar month (21 August to 19 September) of 1419.[71][79] Their
tribute included lions, leopards, dromedary camels, ostriches, zebras,
rhinoceroses, antelopes, giraffes, and other exotic animals,[65] causing
a great sensation among those at the Ming court.[79]
SIXTH
VOYAGE The Taizaong Shilu 3 March 1421 entry noted that the envoys of
sixteen countries (Hormuz and other countries) were given gifts of
paper and coin money, and ceremonial robes and linings before
returning to their respective countries under escort of the treasure
fleet.[80] The imperial order for the sixth voyage was dated 3 March
1421.[81][82] Admiral Zheng He was dispatched with imperial letters, silk
brocade, silk floss, silk gauze, and other gifts for the rulers of these
countries.[80]
The Taizong Shilu 14 May 1421 entry recorded that the treasure
voyages were temporary suspended.[80] Gong Zhen's Xiyang Fanguo
Zhi recorded a 10 November 1421 imperial edict instructing Zheng
He, Kong He (孔和), Zhu Buhua (朱卜花), and Tang Guanbao (唐觀保
) to arrange the provisions for Hong Bao and others for their dispatch
to escort foreign envoys home.[82][83] The envoys of the 16 different
states were escorted to their homelands by the treasure fleet.[84] It's
likely that the first few destinations were Malacca and the three
Sumatran states of Lambri, Aru, and Semudera.[84] The fleet was
divided in several detached squadrons at Semudera.[81][84][85] All the
squadrons proceeded to Ceylon, whereafter they separated for
Jiayile, Cochin, Ganbali, or Calicut in southern India.[84] The
squadrons traveled from there to their respective destinations at
Liushan (Maldive and Laccadive Islands), Hormuz at the Persian
Gulf, the three Arabian states of Djofar, Lasa, and Aden, and the two
African states of Mogadishu and Brava.[84] The eunuch Zhou (probably
Zhou Man) led the detached squadron to Aden.[81][85][86] Ma Huan
mentions Zhou Man and Li Xing in connection to the visit of Aden.[87]
Their squadron may have also visited Lasa and Djofar.[86] According to
the Mingshi, Admiral Zheng He personally visited Ganbali[f] as an
envoy in 1421.[84] This was the only one of the twelve nations west of
Sumatra noted to have been visited by Admiral Zheng He.[84] Even
though Qiulon was not visited, the squadron for Mogadishu probably
separated near Qiulon as a navigation point while the main fleet
continued to Calicut.[86] A large squadron proceeded further from
Calicut to Hormuz.[86] They may have traveled via the Laccadives.[86]
On the return, several squadrons regrouped at Calicut and all the
squadrons regrouped further at Semudera.[86] Siam was likely visited
during the return journey.[84] The fleet returned in 3 September
1422.[82][88] They brought with them envoys from Siam, Semudera,
Aden, and other countries, who bore tribute in local products.[88] The
foreign envoys, who traveled to China with the fleet, proceeded
overland or via the Grand Canal before reaching the imperial court at
Beijing in 1423.[89]